英专学硕-外语语言学-考研笔记-1-1-4-1
Chapter ONE——Language and Linguistics
目录
1-1——「语言与语言学」之Language
1-1-1术语背诵on language
1-1-2 The Definition of Language-广度
1-1-3 The Design Feature of Language-广度
1-1-4-1论述题on language-规范
1-1-4-2论述题on language-规范
1-2-1 Functions of language
两对概念的辨析题——langue&parole、competence&performance
母题一——(09-北二外)How do you understand the distinction between langue and parole introduced by Saussure?
标答格式——(a)谁提出来的 (b)术语指的是什么 (c)Relationship or connection.
(a) Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances) as LANGUE and PAROLE.[胡]
(b) The former one refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. And the latter one refers to the realization of langue in actual use.[共识]
(c) Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.[戴]
(c)’ Langue is storehouse filled by the members of a given community through their active use of speaking, a grammatical system that has a potential existence in each brain, or, more specifically, in the brains of a group of individuals. For langue is not complete in any speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity.[胡]
[辨正概念]——
(a) 索绪尔用「Langue」和「Parole」来区别说话者的语言能力和语言上(表达)的实际表现或语料。Data of linguistics指的是语料库的语料。
(c)’ 基础认知模型，其实从多种角度都可以理解的，我换个角度，大家知道「中心化」与「去中心化」吗？以及「中央集权」与「地方专政」。大家理解「共性」与「个性」吗？
应该不难理解的，懂的自然懂，不懂可以留言互动讨论。
[记忆卡片]——
(c) 语言是使用者所遵循的，言语是使用者所应用的。语言是抽象的，是相对稳定的。言语是具体的，是根据个人情况而变化的。
(c)’ 语言是社区成员所共同享有的大储藏室，成员积极调动它，积极使用存在于个人大脑的潜在的语法系统。准确来说，说话者不能展现语言的全部，语言属于社会存在，只存在于集体合。语言作为精神财富被共同享有，不存在于个人独有。
[论述技巧]——先把术语题标答复制粘贴过来，一半分就有了。还有一半的分是原文关于定义的解释，一步一个台阶。(c)(c)’二选一，根据目标院校所定。
[杂谈]——我猜的，上述答案的(a)(b)默写下来应该会有70%-80%的分数，所以，这分数不是按字数给的。反而像是突破满分付出的努力比一半分数的努力要高五倍往上，不知道大家能不能理解。其次，我不认为人均能把(a)(b)(c)都默写下来。语言学有十二章节，背的东西多了，不能为难自己。凭我的直觉，感觉上述答案(a)(b)默写下来就已经进入前20%的行列了。
母题二——(2013-北二外)Tell the reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users.
(a) The discrepancy between competence and performance is drawn by Chomsy from the psychological aspect in his《Aspects of the Theory of Syntax》.
(b) A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.
(c) As a language user we all have intuitive grasp of the rules of language, and though we may not be able to state the rules explicitly, our performance demonstrates our adherence to them.[胡]
[辨证概念]——能懂不一定能用，他和系花聊天，小鹿乱撞，诚惶诚恐，急不择言，说话都很磕巴，但我们不能说这人就不懂语言，也不能说他就没能力去说话。
[记忆卡片]——对语言规则有天然的把握，虽说不一定能在表现中准确表述，但Performance仍然遵循Competence。
(c)’ Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance which too haphazard(杂乱无序) to be studied. Although a speaker possesses an internalized set of rules and applies them in actual use, he can not tell exactly what these rule are. So the task of the linguistic is to discover and specify these rules.[戴]
[辨证概念]——这个，对于没有上过学的老一辈来说，最明显，能说不一定能懂语法。
[记忆卡片]——虽说有一系列内化的规则，以及去应用它们，但说话者不一定能准确来说语法是什么。
(2011-武大)A distinction can be drawn between Competence and Performance in the study of language. What do they refer to? Why does Chomsy draw such a distinction?
把母题二答案的(a)(b)(c)(c)’抄上去就行，就快满分了。
然后，你再扯一扯，“因pressure,distress,anxiety or embarrassment导致Performance不佳，Slips of the tongue, false grammar, unnecessary pauses，但不意味着不懂语言，我们仍然有Competence”，象征性扣半分，压分都压不住，直接王冠给你戴，导师任你随便选！
[杂谈]——像论述题，尤其是20-30分的大题，标准化术语答完之后，如果还有时间，就按照自己的理解，象征性扯上几句。我感觉，除了有英语垂直细分的八大外院或部分985,211以外，能考MA(尤其是语言学)，应该具备基本的MTI水平，不然就别考了，没优势。自己看着来，量力而行。
How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?
先把母题一二的(a)(b)分别写下来，压线分先拿到。
然后这个点是[戴]这本书详细说过的，它的区别就是that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
一个是人与社会关系的社会学层面，一个是个人的心理学层面。
[辨证概念]——就是「有」与「使用」的哲学关系，哈哈，我有爱人的能力，但不意味着我就爱着谁，前者决定后者。
区别就是一个宏大叙事的社会层面，社区人们共同享有的精神财富(langue)，再具体到个人的使用情况(parole)。再具体到个人从精神财富中得到的能力(competence)，再具体到个人的具体使用情况(performance)。
关于语言的论述题
关于语言的论述题，两个方向的答题点，(a)语言的定义-人类、口头、任意、符号、系统 (b)语言的区别性特征-任意性、双重性、创造性、位移性等。
母题三——What’s your understanding of language?
母题三’——What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?
关于语言的定义，术语默写下来！！！然后还有具体解释名词及例句也需要背！
(a) Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language, i.e. human-specific、vocal、arbitrary、symbolic、systematic.
(b) Human-specific——Language is different from the communication systems of other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dances, animal cries.[戴]
(c) Vocal——The primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.[戴]
(d) Arbitrary——it refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with[戴]
(e) Symbolic——Word are associated with objects, actions and ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”——Shakespeare.[戴]
(f) Systematic——Language is rule-governed; elements in it are arranged according to certain rules and can’t be combined at will, e.g. bkli, I apple eat, are incorrect.[戴]
[杂谈]——一般来说，纯考外应语言学，[戴][胡]两本书必须都要看的，除了考综合卷(英美文学、语言学、文化交际、英语国家概况)。综合卷，相对来说，语言学占的分值低，相对来说就指定一本主书，但如果纯考外应语言学，指定[戴]、[胡]两本书，哪怕[戴]提到而[胡]没提到，只要是重点，就需要背。
In what way do we say language is arbitrary?
(a) Arbitrariness refers to that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, and the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.
(b) E.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”——Shakespeare.
[辨证概念]——我不知道大家能不能看出我的思路，这也是星火给的标答。我说过，[戴]和[胡]对任意性的侧重点不一样，一个是声音与所指物的任意性，一个是符号与所指物的任意性，那两个概念整合到一起，再分别举例子就行。
Why do we say language is primarily vocal?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. VOCAL is one of the main features of language by this definition.
The primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.
然后顺带扯两句，扯两句——其实我说这话的意思是指，我看标答加了一部分不知道哪里来的话术，然后咱肯定不想背呀，就过线分拿到再根据理解扯几句心得，举个例子就行。
关于语言区别性特征的论述题
母题四——(2010北航)What makes language unique to human beings?
母题四’——What are the main features of human language that have been specified to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?
语言的区别性特征-任意性、双重性、创造性、位移性等。把1-1-1术语，默写一遍！！！
(a) The features that define our human languages as distinctive from languages used by other species can be called DESIGN FEATURES.
(b) Arbitrariness refers to that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, and the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.
(c) Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.
(d) By creativity, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and itself recursiveness.
(e) Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present, in time and space, at the moment of communication.
如果所考院校指定[戴]版本，就再把「cultural transmission」默写下来。(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)默写下来就已经很厉害啦，不辜负努力时光，量力而行，加油。
如果是大题了，会者不难，前面选填判断基本白给，时间肯定很充足，然后，论述大题需要写写动物没有上述的特征，你记得1-1-3笔记拿出来看看！！！
母题五——What kind of evidence supports the idea that language is culturally transmitted?
(a) Cultural transmission[戴]——we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.
(b) An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible.
(b)’ A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English child brought up in Beijing by a Chinese aunt will speak Chinese.
(c) It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.
(d) 您展示才华区！
母题六——Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? 【提前转变下思路，如果没有这个特征=默写这个特征的好处优势，再否定！】
母题六'——How do you understand “duality”, a design feature of language?
(a) Duality——It refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.
(b) Roughly speaking, the elements of the spoken language are sounds which do not convey meaning in themselves. The only function of sounds is to combine with one another to form units that have meaning, such as words.[胡]话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位。
(c) Stratification(分层) of Duality——this organization of levels on levels——is the physical manifestation(具体体现) of the“infinite use of finite means，”the trait(特性) that most distinguishes human communication and that provides itself tremendous resourceful.[胡]
(d) We can perceive the advantage of DUALITY, which lies in the great productive power our language is endowed with(被赋予的). A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements(大量的单位由很少数量的成分构成)——for instance, a considerable number of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48(48个音素) in the case of(就…而言) the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be endless number of sentences, which in turn can form unlimited number of texts.
然后，
材料综合题
累成狗，下次再更- -！！！
