【简译】美洲烟草简史

【注：吸烟有害健康】

The history of tobacco use in the Americas goes back over 1,000 years when natives of the region chewed or smoked the leaves of the plant now known as Nicotiana rustica (primarily in the north) and Nicotiana tabacum (mostly in the south). After European colonization, tobacco would become the most profitable crop exported from the Americas.

          美洲运用烟草的历史可以追溯到一千多年前，当时该地区的土著人会咀嚼或吸食现在被称为 Nicotiana rustica（黄花烟草，俗称阿兹特克烟草，主要在北方）和 Nicotiana tabacum（栽培烟草，主要在南方）的植物叶子。欧洲殖民后，烟草成为美洲出口的最有利可图的作物。  

This plant grew wild but came to be cultivated by the natives for use in religious rituals and hunting parties as it was thought to expand the mind and heighten one's sensations overall. After 1492 CE, European colonization of the West Indies and South and Central America shifted the focus of tobacco to recreational use. By the mid-1500s CE, tobacco had become the most profitable export from the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of the Americas, primarily Nicotiana tabacum.

          这种植物生长在野外，但后来被当地人培育种植，用于宗教仪式和狩猎聚会，他们认为烟草能拓展思维，提高人的整体感觉。1492年后，欧洲人在西印度群岛、南美洲和中美洲的殖民统治使烟草的用途转向娱乐。到16世纪中期，烟草已成为西班牙和葡萄牙美洲殖民地最赚钱的出口产品，主要品种是Nicotiana tabacum（栽培烟草）。

The secret of their Nicotiana tabacum blend was closely guarded by the Spanish – it was against the law to share seeds or plants with non-Spaniards – but travelers or merchants would do so anyway. When England began to colonize North America in the late 16th century CE, Sir Walter Raleigh (l. c. 1552-1618 CE) introduced the older, rougher, strain of tobacco – N. rustica – to Britain. By this time (c. 1585 CE), tobacco had already become a popular, recreational drug in the country, but N. rustica was a much harsher smoke than the Spanish N. tabacum.

          西班牙人严守栽培烟草（Nicotiana tabacum）的秘密（在当时与非西班牙人分享种子或植物是违法的），但旅行者或商人还是会冒险传播。英国在16世纪晚期开始殖民北美时，沃尔特·雷利爵士（Walter Raleigh，1552-1618 年，CV28056172）将更古老、更原始的烟草烟草品种Nicotiana rustica（黄花烟草）带回英国。此时（1585年左右），烟草已成为英国流行的消遣性药物，但黄花烟草的烟雾比西班牙的栽培烟草刺鼻得多。

The English colony of Jamestown was established in 1607 CE and a hybrid of various strains of N. tabacum was brought and planted by the merchant John Rolfe (l. 1585-1622 CE) in 1610 CE. Rolfe's crop not only made him wealthy but saved the Jamestown Colony of Virginia and further popularized tobacco use in England, throughout Europe, and in the rest of the world. Tobacco plantations expanded throughout Virginia as Jamestown itself began to grow, taking more land from the Native Americans of the region, and this practice finally resulted in the Powhattan Wars (1610-1646 CE) which drove out most of the original inhabitants and made more room for even larger plantations.

          英国詹姆斯敦殖民地（英国在美洲建立的第一个永久性的殖民地）建立于1607年，商人约翰·罗尔夫 (John Rolfe，1585-1622年) 在1610年带来并种植了多种烟草杂交种。罗尔夫种植烟草不仅使他致富，还拯救了弗吉尼亚的詹姆斯敦殖民地，并进一步在英国、整个欧洲和世界其他地方普及了烟草的消费。随着詹姆斯敦本身的发展，烟草种植园扩展到整个弗吉尼亚州，殖民者从当地的美洲原住民手中夺走了更多的土地，这种做法最终导致了盎格鲁-波瓦坦战争（1610-1646年），殖民者驱逐了大部分原住民，为更大的种植园腾出了更多空间。

The decrease in the practice of indentured servitude after 1676 CE, and the intense labor required for tobacco crops, led to the increase in importing African slaves and enslaving Native Americans. As tobacco became more popular, and more commercial businesses were established for its cultivation and sale, more land and more slaves were required. The original use of tobacco by the natives was forgotten as the plant became the most lucrative cash crop of the Americas.

          1676年后，契约奴役的做法有所减少，而烟草种植需要大量劳动力，这导致进口非洲奴隶和奴役美洲原住民的情况增多。随着烟草越来越受欢迎，种植和销售烟草的商企越来越多，种植园需要更多的土地和更多的奴隶。当烟草成为美洲最赚钱的经济作物时，当地人最初使用烟草的行为就被遗忘了。

It continued to fuel the colonial economy, contributed to the unrest which resulted in the American War of Independence (1775-1783 CE), increased tensions in the country leading up to the American Civil War (1861-1865 CE), and was the cause of the Tobacco Wars of the early 20th century CE. In the modern era, tobacco has been recognized as the leading cause of preventable deaths but continues in use by people around the world as one of the most accepted and popular recreational drugs.

          烟草助长了殖民地经济，引发了导致美国独立战争（1775-1783年）的动乱，加剧了内战（1861-1865年）前的紧张局势，并引发了20世纪初的烟草战争。现代社会，烟草已被公认为加速死亡的主要原因，但作为最广为接受和流行的消遣性药物之一，世界各地的人们仍持续吸烟。

美洲原住民对烟草的运用及殖民化过程中烟草的发展

Tobacco, along with the "three sisters" (beans, maize, and squash), potatoes, and tomatoes, was among the most significant crops cultivated by the natives prior to European colonization of the Americas. The plant was considered sacred and was frequently smoked or chewed as an appetite suppressant, a stimulant, for medicinal purposes, and to allow for communion with the spirit world. When Christopher Columbus (l. 1451-1506 CE), arrived in Cuba, the indigenous people offered him tobacco as a gift. Columbus seized on the plant and exported it to Spain where it found a large market.

          烟草与“三姐妹”（豆类、玉米和南瓜）、土豆和西红柿，是欧洲殖民美洲前当地人种植的最重要的农作物之一。这种植物被认为是神圣的，人们经常熏制或咀嚼这种植物，作为抑制食欲、兴奋剂、药用以及与灵魂世界交流的工具。当克里斯托弗·哥伦布（1451-1506年）抵达古巴时，当地人将烟草作为礼物赠予他。哥伦布收下并将其带回西班牙，他在那发现了一个潜在的庞大市场。

Columbus instituted the feudal system of the encomienda which offered the natives protection from himself and his men, primarily, in return for labor. Tobacco became one of the main crops harvested on the large colonial plantations and, as demand for the plant grew in Europe, the Spanish overlords worked the natives harder. The Spanish priest Bartolomé de las Casas (l. 1484-1566 CE), who later witnessed the encomienda system first-hand, noted the brutality of the Spanish masters in his A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies. After relating a number of atrocities the indigenous people suffered at the hands of the Spanish, he comments:

     By the ferocity of one Spanish Tyrant (whom I knew), above two hundred Indians hanged themselves of their own accord [rather than continue to suffer in servitude] and a multitude of people perished by this kind of death. (23)

          哥伦布在那里设置了委托监护制 (Encomienda，最初出现在罗马帝国统治下的伊比利亚半岛，武力强大的人保护武力弱小的人，以换取他们的服务。后来西班牙王室在菲律宾和美洲进行殖民活动时用该制度管理和统治印第安人或当地原居民)，为当地人提供保护，使他们免受自己和手下人的侵害，主要是以劳动作为回报。烟草成为大型殖民种植园收获的主要作物之一，随着欧洲对烟草需求的增长，西班牙领主让当地人更加努力地工作。西班牙牧师巴托洛梅·德·拉斯卡萨斯（Bartolomé de las Casas，1484-1566年）后来亲眼目睹了委托监护制，他在《西印度毁灭述略》（A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies）中指出了西班牙统治者的残暴。在讲述了土著人在西班牙人手中遭受的一系列暴行后，他评论道：

          由于西班牙暴君（我认识他）的凶残，超过两百名印第安人自愿上吊自杀（以免继续遭受奴役之苦），还有许多人因此而丧生。(23)

The Spanish had refined the original plant so that it smoked more easily and had a more pleasant taste, and this, of course, made it even more popular abroad. In 1561 CE, the French diplomat Jean Nicot de Villemain (l. 1530-1604 CE), who had been stationed in Lisbon, Portugal, returned to France with tobacco plants. He introduced tobacco to the French court as a medicine that could cure headaches and calm the nerves. Tobacco became an instant success at court, then in monasteries, and finally among the people in general. Nicot was rewarded by the French crown and his name was given to the active ingredient in tobacco, nicotine. The new market in France required greater efforts in production in the Americas. As tobacco became more profitable, more land was taken for production and more natives for forced labor.

          西班牙人对最初的烟草植物进行了改良，使其更易吸食，口感更舒适，当然，这也使其在国外更受欢迎。1561年，驻扎在葡萄牙里斯本的法国外交官让·尼科·德·维尔曼（Jean Nicot de Villemain，1530-1604年）带着这种烟草植物回到法国。他将烟草作为一种可以治疗头痛和镇静神经的药物介绍给法国宫廷。烟草立即在宫廷、修道院和普通民众中流行起来。尼科受到了法国王室的奖赏，烟草中的有效成分尼古丁（Nicotine）也以他的名字命名。法国的新市场要求美洲加大生产力度。随着烟草的利润越来越高，更多的土地被用于生产烟草，更多的当地人被强迫劳动。

詹姆斯敦与约翰·罗尔夫

This same pattern would repeat itself in North America after Jamestown was established by the British in 1607 CE. Between 1607-1610 CE, Jamestown struggled, losing up to 80% of its population and, in 1609 CE, resorting to cannibalism just to survive. In 1610 CE, the merchant John Rolfe arrived along with Sir Thomas Gates (l. c. 1585-1622 CE) and Thomas West, Lord De La Warr (l. 1577-1618 CE) and reversed the colony's fortunes. De La Warr instituted a policy of conquest without compromise against the native Powhatan Confederation while Gates reformed both the colonists and their settlement. It was Rolfe, however, who saved the colony, expanded it, and provided justification for taking more Native American land when the tobacco seeds he had arrived with flourished and he became wealthy from the production and sale of Virginia tobacco.

           1607年，英国人在北美建立了詹姆斯敦殖民地，此后，同样的模式在北美重演。在1607-1610年间，詹姆斯敦举步维艰，人口流失高达 80%；在1609年，为了生存而采取同类相食的方式。161年，商人约翰·罗尔夫（John Rolfe）与托马斯·盖茨爵士（Thomas Gates，约1585-1622年）和德拉瓦尔勋爵托马斯·韦斯特（Thomas West，Lord De La Warr，约1577-1618年）来到詹姆斯敦，扭转了殖民地的命运。德拉瓦尔勋爵对当地的波瓦坦联盟采取了不妥协的征服政策，而托马斯·盖茨则对殖民者及其定居点进行了改革。然而，正是约翰·罗尔夫拯救并扩大了詹姆斯敦殖民地，且在他带来的烟草种子茁壮成长、从弗吉尼亚烟草的生产与销售中致富后，为夺取更多美洲原住民的土地提供了理由。   

Tobacco had already been cultivated in the regions around Virginia by the native Adena culture (c. 800 BCE - 1 CE), as evidenced by artifacts such as the Adena Pipe and others, and was continued by the Hopewell tradition (c. 100 BCE-500 CE), successors of the Adena, in modern-day West Virginia, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, and Indiana. The native Powhatans had inherited tobacco cultivation, but this was the N. rustica variety. Rolfe's blend was the smoother N. tabacum, but his skill with the plant made it more popular than Spanish tobacco. Scholar Iain Gately comments:

     John Rolfe's experiment heralded a rapid and permanent change in the fortunes of England's colonial enterprise. Englishmen understood the value of tobacco and needed little persuasion to finance its cultivation. The London marketplace welcomed increasing shipments of Virginian weed. The tobacco crop of 1618 was 20,000 pounds. Four years later, despite an Indian attack that killed nearly one-third of Virginia's colonists, the settlement sent a crop of 60,000 pounds. By 1627, the shipment totaled 500,000 pounds, and two years later that tripled. (72)

          在弗吉尼亚州周围地区，当地的阿德纳文化（约公元前800年至公元前1年）早已开始种植烟草，阿德纳烟斗等文物就是证明，在现代西弗吉尼亚州、俄亥俄州、宾夕法尼亚州、肯塔基州和印第安纳州，阿德纳文化的继承者霍普韦尔文化（约公元前100年至公元前500年）也在继续种植烟草。土著波瓦坦人继承了烟草种植，不过是黄花烟草（Nicotiana rustica）。罗尔夫的混合烟草是口感更顺滑的栽培烟草（Nicotiana tabacum），但他对烟草的精湛加工技艺让这种烟草比西班牙殖民地生产的烟草更受欢迎。学者伊恩·盖特利评论道：   

          约翰·罗尔夫的试验预示着英国殖民事业的命运将发生迅速而永久的变化。英国人了解烟草的价值，几乎不需要说服就可以为其种植提供资金。伦敦市场对越来越多的弗吉尼亚烟草表示欢迎。1618年的烟草产量为20000磅。四年后，尽管印第安人的袭击导致弗吉尼亚近三分之一的定居者丧生，但定居点还是运来了6万磅烟草。到1627年，烟草总产量达到50万磅，两年后又增加了两倍。(72) 

Although De La Warr had pushed a policy of conquest, it had not proved successful, and after he returned to England Rolfe tried a different approach: alliance through marriage. In 1614 CE, he married Pocahontas (l. c. 1596-1617 CE), daughter of the Powhatan chief (referred to by the colonists as Chief Powhatan). It does not seem that Rolfe initially thought of his marriage as a political strategy – the couple were genuinely attracted to each other – but it served the purpose of uniting the natives and colonists for a few years and allowed for greater expansion of tobacco plantations.

          尽管德拉瓦尔勋爵托马斯·韦斯特曾推行征服政策，但事实证明这并不成功，罗尔夫回到英国后尝试了另一种方法：通过联姻结盟。1614年，他与波瓦坦酋长（殖民者称其为波瓦坦酋长）的女儿波卡洪塔斯（Pocahontas，宝嘉康蒂，约1596-1617年）结婚。罗尔夫最初似乎并没有将他们的婚姻视为一种政治策略（这对夫妇是真爱），但这在几年内起到了团结当地人与外来者的作用，并使烟草种植园得到了更多发展。

奴隶制与烟草

These farms were worked by indentured servants – people who, voluntarily or involuntarily, agreed to serve a master for seven years in return for passage to the New World and a land grant – but as the farms expanded, more labor was required than these servants could provide. Gately comments:

     A solution appeared to Jamestown's labour problem in the form of a Dutch trading ship which dropped anchor in Chesapeake Bay in 1619. The colonists bought twenty African slaves who were set to work in the tobacco fields. The Dutch traders recognized a promising market and returned in subsequent years with more slaves for sale and slavery quickly became essential to the colony's economy. (73)

           契约仆人在这些农场工作，他们自愿或非自愿地同意为主人服务七年，以换取前往新大陆的通行证和一份土地赠予，但随着农场的扩张，需要的劳动力超过了这些仆人所能提供的数量。盖特利评论道：

          1619年，一艘荷兰商船在切萨皮克湾抛锚，解决了詹姆斯敦的劳动力问题。殖民者购买了20名非洲奴隶，让他们在烟草田里工作。荷兰商人意识到（奴隶）市场前景广阔，随后几年又带着更多的奴隶回售，奴隶制很快成为殖民地经济的重要组成部分。(73)

These early slaves seem to have been treated differently than those who were brought to the colony later. Scholar David A. Price notes:

Although it is tempting to assume that these first recorded Africans in English America were also the first slaves, there is evidence to suggest they were not. They may instead have had the legal position of indentured servants, like many of the white newcomers, eligible for freedom after completing a period of service. (197)

          这些早期奴隶的待遇似乎与后来被带到殖民地的奴隶不同。学者大卫·A·普莱斯（David A. Price）指出

          尽管人们很容易认为英属美洲记录的第一批非洲人也是第一批奴隶，但证据表明事实并非如此。相反，他们可能拥有契约仆人的合法地位，就像许多新来的白人一样，在完成一段时间的服务后将有资格获得自由。(197)

Part of the evidence Price references is the presence of free blacks in the colony prior to 1640 CE who had received land just as white indentured servants had. The year 1640 CE marks a turning point in the treatment of black servants as opposed to white servants in the case of the black indentured servant, John Punch. Punch objected to his treatment by his master and left his service, without fulfilling his contract, in the company of two other servants who were white. When the three were caught, the two white servants had their servitude extended by four years while Punch was sentenced to slavery for the rest of his life. Slavery was institutionalized in Virginia by 1661 CE and, although there were still free blacks in the colony, race now played a much larger part in community affairs and policies than it had previously.

           普莱斯提到的部分证据是，在1640年之前，殖民地中存在自由黑人，他们与白人契约仆人一样获得了土地。1640年是黑人契约仆人（典型例子：约翰·庞奇（John Punch））与白人契约仆人待遇的转折点。庞奇反对主人对他的待遇，在没有履行合同的情况下，与另外两名白人契约仆人一起逃离了。三人被抓后，两名白人仆人的奴役期被延长了四年，而庞奇则被判终身为奴。到1661年，弗吉尼亚州的奴隶制已经制度化，虽然殖民地中仍有自由黑人，但种族在社区事务和政策中的作用已远远超过以前。

扩张与经济

By 1661 CE, the Powhatans had been defeated in three separate wars and the colonists had discovered that Native Americans did not make the best slaves. This realization did nothing to stop them from selling the natives to others, but the white landowners found African slaves to be stronger and able to endure labor longer. The colony expanded further as more indentured servants completed their contracts and were given land and the farms in the interior began encroaching on the lands the Powhatans had retreated to.

          到1661年，波瓦坦人在三次不同的战争中被打败，殖民者发现美洲原住民并不是最好的奴隶。这一发现并没有阻止他们将土著人卖给其他人，但白人地主发现非洲奴隶更加强壮，能够忍受更长时间的劳动。随着越来越多的契约仆人完成契约并获得土地，殖民地进一步扩大，内陆的农场开始侵占波瓦坦人退守的土地。

In 1676 CE, one of the interior landowners, Nathaniel Bacon (l. 1647-1676 CE) mounted a revolt (Bacon's Rebellion) against the governor William Berkeley (l. 1605-1677 CE), demanding better lands for farmers in the interior and the massacre or relocation of the Powhatans still in the area who would sometimes raid these farms. Berkeley refused Bacon's demands, and the insurrectionists then burned Jamestown. The rebellion fell apart when Bacon died of dysentery, but the authorities recognized the danger of continuing to award land grants to indentured servants who might then use their resources to fund revolt and so ended that policy.

          1676年，内陆地主之一纳撒尼尔·培根（Nathaniel Bacon，1647-1676年）发动叛乱（培根叛乱），反对总督威廉·伯克利（William Berkeley，1605-1677年），要求为内陆农民提供更好的土地，并屠杀或迁移仍在该地区的波瓦坦人，他们有时会袭击这些农场。总督伯克利拒绝了培根的要求，叛乱者随后烧毁了詹姆斯敦。培根死于痢疾，叛乱随之瓦解，但当局认识到继续向契约仆人授予土地的危险性，因为这些仆人可能会利用他们的资源来资助叛乱，因此结束了这一政策。   

From that point on, manual labor on the plantations would be taken care of by Africans purchased as slaves. Slaves who worked tobacco plantations soon were regarded as more valuable than those who worked in cotton or rice fields because tobacco required more skill to harvest. New slaves were apprenticed to older veterans of the fields to learn these skills and slave families were frequently separated when a skilled tobacco slave was kept but his or her family sold.

          从那时起，种植园的体力劳动就由买来的非洲奴隶承担了。在烟草种植园工作的奴隶很快就被认为比在棉花田或稻田工作的奴隶更有价值，因为烟草的收获需要更多的技能。新来的奴隶要拜田里的老手为师，学习这些技能，如果一个熟练的烟草奴隶被保留，但他或她的家人却被卖掉时，奴隶家庭往往会被分离。

烟草与革命

As the European demand for tobacco grew, more land was required for plantations and so, first, more Native Americans had to be removed from their tribal lands and, second, more Africans were needed as slaves. The colonies of Maryland and North Carolina became the next two greatest tobacco producers after Virginia, and by the early 1700s CE, all three were exporting thousands of pounds of tobacco to Europe every year. The British monarchy discouraged the production of cotton in the colonies owing to the economic policy of mercantilism (which balances exports over imports) so tobacco became the primary cash crop. Even though James I of England (r. 1603-1625 CE) objected to tobacco, he could not argue with the profits and settled for taxing tobacco instead of banning it.

          随着欧洲对烟草需求的增长，种植园需要更多的土地，因此，首先需要将更多的美洲原住民从他们的部落土地上赶走，其次需要更多的非洲人作为奴隶。马里兰和北卡罗来纳殖民地成为仅次于弗吉尼亚的两大烟草生产地，到17世纪初，这三个殖民地每年都向欧洲出口数千磅烟草。出于重商主义的经济政策（出口大于进口），英国君主不鼓励殖民地生产棉花，因此烟草成为主要的经济作物。尽管英国的詹姆斯一世（1603-1625年）反对烟草，但他无法与烟草的利润相抗衡，于是决定对烟草征税而不是禁止。

The tobacco farmers stamped their product with seals to identify it, and certain plantations became known for better tobacco than others. Shipments of tobacco would arrive in London where they were handled by merchants, who would push one brand of tobacco for a higher price over others. These merchants also periodically depressed tobacco prices while still providing large loans to the colonial planters. The plantation owners, therefore, found themselves in the position of owing substantial debt they were unable to pay due to depressed London markets.

          烟农们在自己的产品上盖上印章以资识别，某些种植园的烟草比其他种植园的烟草更出名。烟草运抵伦敦后由商人处理，他们以高于其他品牌的价格推销一种品牌的烟草。这些商人还会定期压低烟草价格，同时还向殖民地种植园主提供大量贷款。结果，种植园主发现自己欠下了大笔债务，但由于伦敦市场低迷，他们无力偿还。

By this time (c. 1750 CE), tobacco was used in the colonies as currency and so the London merchants could demand payment on the loans in tobacco when planters found they could not pay in cash. This situation contributed to the outrage colonists felt over England's policies in the colonies and encouraged the rebellion that became the American Revolutionary War since a number of the Founding Fathers, including Thomas Jefferson and George Washington, were tobacco farmers.

          此时（约1750年），烟草已在殖民地作为货币使用，因此当种植园主发现无法用现金支付时，伦敦商人可以要求他们用烟草支付贷款。这种情况加剧了殖民者对英国在殖民地政策的愤怒，并鼓励了叛乱，最终演变成美国独立战争。包括托马斯·杰斐逊和乔治·华盛顿在内的许多美国开国元勋都是烟农。

内战与烟草战争

Tobacco continued to inform the economy and policies of the United States into the 19th century CE. As the northern states became more industrialized, they required less slave labor, and many abolished the institution. The southern states, however, continued to rely on slaves for labor in the tobacco and cotton fields. Southern goods were frequently shipped to the north and were taxed but, the states felt, nothing of consequence was coming from the north to them as compensation; disagreements over equitable trade and the southern states' defense of slavery finally led to conflict.

          烟草一直影响着美国的经济和政策，直至19世纪。随着北方各州工业化程度的提高，他们对奴隶劳动的需求减少，许多州废除了奴隶制。然而，南方各州仍依赖奴隶在烟草和棉花田劳动。南方的货物经常被运往北方并被征税，但各州认为，北方并没有向他们提供任何有意义的补偿；关于公平贸易和南方各州捍卫奴隶制的分歧最终导致了冲突。

Southern states broke with the union that had been formed after the Revolution, declaring themselves a separate entity, the Confederate States of America. Northern states responded by defining this action as rebellion and so the American Civil War (more properly known as the War Between the States) was begun. By the time the south was defeated in 1865 CE, slavery had been abolished, large plantations could no longer function as they once had, and former slaves now had to be paid a fair wage.

          南方各州与革命后成立联邦决裂，宣布自己是一个独立的实体，即美利坚联盟国（简称“邦联”，Confederate）。北方各州（美利坚合众国，简称“联邦”，Union）的反应是将这一行动定义为叛乱，于是美国内战（更恰当的名称是州际战争）开始了。到1865年南方战败时，奴隶制已被废除，大型种植园不能再像以前那样运作，以前的奴隶现在必须获得合理的工资。

The southern states were able to get around the new model by instituting laws on vagrancy whereby someone (almost always a black man) newly arrived in town, who could not provide a legal address, was arrested and sentenced to work on a local plantation. Planters who were provided with these “workers” were able to produce more tobacco at less cost than others with more modest farms who paid their laborers. The farmers sold their product to a distributor who then marketed it to the public, and those with the cheapest labor grew rich enough to also manage distribution.

          南方各州通过制定流浪法来规避新模式，根据这些流浪法，新到镇上的某个人（几乎总是黑人）如果不能提供合法住址，就会被逮捕并被判处在当地种植园工作。获得这些“工人”的种植园主能够以更低的成本生产出更多的烟草，而其他种植园主的农场则较为简陋，只能向工人支付工资。农民将产品卖给分销商，分销商再将产品销售给公众，那些拥有最廉价劳动力的农民逐渐富裕起来，足以同时管理分销。

The biggest distributor in the 19th and early 20th centuries was American Tobacco Company founded by James Buchanan Duke (l. 1856-1925 CE) who had nothing to do with production and everything with sales. He acquired all rights to the new cigarette-rolling machine in 1881 CE which was able to produce 400 cigarettes a minute. Having lowered his costs, he cut his prices, forcing competitors out of business who then sold their companies to him, allowing Duke to form a monopoly on the market. He then offered lower compensation to farmers for their crops which eventually resulted in the Tobacco Wars (better known as the Black Patch Tobacco Wars) of 1904-1909 CE in the region of Black Patch, Tennessee, a collection of counties so-named for the dark smoke from the tobacco-curing process.

          19 世纪和 20 世纪初最大的经销商是詹姆斯·布坎南·杜克（James Buchanan Duke，1856-1925年）创建的美国烟草公司。他在1881年获得了新型卷烟机的所有权利，这种卷烟机每分钟能生产400支香烟。降低成本后，他开始降低香烟价格，迫使竞争对手倒闭，然后将公司卖给他，使杜克形成了市场垄断。随后，他又降低了对农民作物的补偿，最终导致了1904-1909年田纳西州西部地区的烟草战争（又称黑斑烟草战争，所谓的“黑斑”由肯塔基州西南部和田纳西州西北部的约30个县组成。在此期间，该地区是全球领先的深色烤烟供应商。它因收获后所经历的木烟和火固化过程而得名。这种类型的烟草主要用于鼻烟、咀嚼烟和斗烟）。  

The wars were a series of conflicts between tobacco suppliers and distributors and a coalition of farmers calling itself the Planter's Protective Alliance which burned storehouses, farms, and warehouses and periodically hanged sharecroppers who worked on farms supplying Duke. The wars ended when the leaders were arrested in 1908-1909 CE and the American Tobacco Company was dismantled by the federal government in 1911 CE.

          战争是烟草供应商和经销商与自称为“种植园保护联盟”的农民联盟之间的一系列冲突，该联盟焚烧仓库、农场，并定期绞死在为杜克公司供货的农场工作的佃农。战争在领导人于1908-1909年被捕后结束，美国烟草公司于1911年被联邦政府解散。

结束语

Cigarettes had been looked down upon as associated with the lower-class and poor while the pipe or cigar was the preferred method for smoking tobacco by the affluent. Mass production and mass marketing, however, changed that, and by World War I (1914-1918 CE) cigarettes were included in military rations and associated with patriotism. Tobacco use, by this time, had become common practice worldwide, even though some countries had tried to ban it, even going so far as to execute tobacco merchants and users.

          香烟曾被认为是与下层社会和穷人联系在一起的，而烟斗或雪茄则是富裕阶层吸烟的首选方式。然而，大规模生产与营销改变了这种状况，到第一次世界大战（1914-1918年）时，香烟已被列入军粮中，并与爱国主义联系在一起。此时，尽管一些国家试图禁止吸烟，甚至处决烟草商和消费者，但吸烟已成为全世界的普遍做法。

In the present day, efforts by groups such as the American Cancer Society have proved somewhat more effective and health warnings or images of diseased lungs are required on tobacco products. Tobacco companies are also no longer allowed to advertise on television or in magazines, and health professionals continually stress smoking tobacco as a cause of lung cancer. Even so, people around the world continue to use tobacco in spite of decades of warnings on its dangers.

           如今，美国癌症协会等组织的努力已被证明更为有效，烟草产品上必须有健康警示或病变肺部的图像。烟草公司也不被允许在电视或杂志上做广告，健康专家不断强调吸烟是肺癌的诱因之一。即便如此，尽管几十年来人们一直在警告烟草的危害，但世界各地的人们仍在继续吸烟。

Recognizing the plant's popularity, some Native American groups are now trying a different approach to curb smoking: to revive the sacred nature of tobacco. Those involved in these efforts claim that they have seen a reduction in the number of smokers in their community who have come to recognize tobacco in its sacred form, carefully cultivated from the earth to final product, as it was over 400 years ago, and so now treat it, and themselves, with greater respect.

          认识到这种植物的受欢迎程度，一些美洲原住民团体正在尝试一种不同的方法来控制吸烟：恢复烟草的神圣本质。参与这些努力的人声称，他们已经看到社区中吸烟者的数量有所减少，他们开始认识到烟草的神圣形式，即从泥土中精心培育到最终产品，就像 400多年前一样，因此他们对烟草和生命都更加尊重。

参考书目：

de Las Casas, B. & Griffin, N. & Pagden, A. A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies. Penguin Classics, 1999.

Drake, S. G. History of the Early Discovery of America and Landing of the Pilgrims. Nabu Press, 2010.

Gately, I. Tobacco: A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced Civilization. Grove Press, 2003.

Goodman, J. Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence. Routledge, 1994.

Historical Influences on Contemporary Tobacco Use by Northern Plains and Southwestern American Indians by Stephen J. KunitzAccessed 7 Feb 2021.

Horn, J. A Land As God Made It: Jamestown and the Birth of America. Basic Books, 2006.

Mann, C. C. 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Vintage, 2006.

Mann, C. C. 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. Vintage, 2012.

Price, D. A. Love and Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahontas, and the Start of a New Nation. Vintage, 2005.

The Fight to Keep Tobacco Sacred by Dina Fine MaronAccessed 7 Feb 2021.

原文作者：Joshua J. Mark

Joshua J. Mark是自由撰稿人，曾是纽约马里斯特学院的兼职哲学教授，他曾在希腊和德国生活过，并游历过埃及。曾在大学里教授历史、写作、文学和哲学。

原文网址: https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1677/a-brief-history-of-tobacco-in-the-americas/

【注：吸烟有害健康】