【简译】室町时代（Muromachi Period）

2023-02-06 12:59 作者:神尾智代 0人读过 | 我要投稿

上一时代

The Muromachi Period (Muromachi Jidai, 1333-1573 CE) refers to the period of Japanese medieval history when the Ashikaga shogun capital was located in the Muromachi area of Heiankyo (Kyoto). Replacing the Kamakura Shogunate (1192-1333 CE), the Ashikaga or Muromachi Shogunate (1338-1573) would oversee a depressingly warlike, rebellious, and brutal period of history which saw incessant rivalries between warlords and unchecked bandits plaguing the countryside. There were a few bright spots such as the construction of the Kinkakuji and Ginkakuji temples in Kyoto as well as progress in trade and commerce, the arts and castle architecture. The period ended with the warlord Oda Nobunaga seizing power in 1568 CE and his decision to exile the last Ashikaga shogun in 1573 CE.

室町时代（Muromachi Jidai，公元1333-1573年）是指，日本中世纪历史上足利幕府将军的首都位于平安京（京都）室町地区的时期。足利或室町幕府（1338-1573年）取代了镰仓幕府（1192-1333年），它见证了一个令人沮丧的好战、叛乱和残酷的历史时期，军阀之间不断的竞争和肆无忌惮的土匪困扰着乡村。当然，这一时期也有一些亮点，如京都金阁寺和银阁寺的建造，以及贸易和商业、艺术和城堡建筑方面的进步。这一时期以军阀织田信长在公元1568年夺取政权并于公元1573年流放最后一位足利幕府将军的决定而结束。

镰仓时代

The Kamakura period spanned from 1185 to 1333 CE and began when the military leader Minamoto no Yoritomo took control of Japan. In 1192 CE Yoritomo selected Kamakura as the new capital of the Kamakura Shogunate with the imperial court still residing at Heinakyo (Kyoto). The shoguns (military dictators) would redistribute land to loyal followers but also instigate reforms which improved trade and agriculture. The development of Zen Buddhism in Japan would be another feature of the Kamakura period.

镰仓时代从公元1185年持续到1333年，开始于军事领袖源赖朝控制日本之时。公元1192年，源赖朝选择镰仓作为新幕府的首都，朝廷仍然在京都。幕府将军（军事独裁者）将土地重新分配给忠诚的追随者，但也煽动改革，改善贸易和农业。禅宗在日本的发展是镰仓时期的另一特点。

Several attempts were made by emperors in the period to regain some of the power they had lost to the shoguns that ruled Japan in practice. Emperor Go-Daigo (r. 1318-1339 CE) stirred up rebellion, as he had unsuccessfully tried to do in 1324 and 1331 CE, and used his allies, the rebel warlords Nitta Yoshisada (l. 1301-1337 CE) and Ashikaga Takauji to topple the Kamakura shoguns. The Kamakura Shogunate had been seriously weakened by the Mongol invasions of Kublai Khan (r. 1260-1294 CE) in 1274 and 1281 CE. Both invasions failed, largely thanks to two typhoons destroying the invasion fleets. However, the conflict and the standing in readiness between the invasions (including awaiting an anticipated third attack that never came) nearly brought the state to bankruptcy. Unrest from unpaid samurai and a general lack of control in the provinces, which lead to widespread banditry, meant that the Kamakura shoguns were at their most vulnerable.

在此期间，天皇曾多次尝试重新获得他们在实际统治日本的幕府将军手中失去的部分权力。后醍醐天皇（1318-1339）煽动了叛乱，就像他在1324年和1331年做的一样，但没有成功，他利用他的盟友，叛乱的军阀新田义贞（1301-1337）和足利尊氏来推翻镰仓幕府。由于忽必烈（Kublai Khan，公元1260-1294年）在公元1274年和1281年对日本的入侵，镰仓幕府的实力被严重削弱了。蒙古的两次入侵都失败了，主要是由于两次台风摧毁了舰队。然而，战争和两次入侵之间的准备工作（包括等待预期的第三次攻击，但从未到来）几乎使国家陷入破产。来自未获薪资的武士的骚乱和各省普遍缺乏控制，导致盗匪猖獗，这意味着镰仓幕府处于最脆弱的状态。

建武新政

Around 1333 CE Kamakura was sacked by Nitta Yoshisada, and the capital was moved back to join the imperial court of Heiankyo. With the government established in the Muromachi district of the city, the decision gave its name to the next period of Japanese history: the Muromachi period. There then followed the incident known as the Kenmu Restoration (1333-1336 CE). Ashikaga Takauji had been sent by the Kamakura Shogunate to deal with Go-Daigo but, tempted by the power his army offered him, he joined forces with the emperor and attacked Heiankyo. Takauji wanted to be nothing less than the new shogun, but Go-Daigo refused to give him this title because he did not want to return to a position of subservience. Takauji then defeated Go-Daigo's chief ally Yoshisada at the battle of Minatogawa near Kobe in July 1336 CE and then captured Heiankyo. The chaos and fighting of the 1330s CE were wryly noted by an anonymous sign painter in Heiankyo:

Assaults in the night, armed robberies, falsified documents, easy women…chopped off heads, monks who defrock themselves and laymen who shave their heads.

(Huffman, 43)

公元1333年左右，镰仓被新田义贞洗劫一空，首都被迫迁回平安京。随着政府在首都的室町地区建立，这一决定为日本历史的下一个时期命名提供选择：室町时代。随后，发生了被称为建武新政（公元1333-1336年）的事件。足利尊氏（原名足利高氏）被镰仓幕府派去对付后醍醐天皇，但受其军队提供的权力的诱惑，他与天皇联手，进攻平安京。足利尊氏想成为新幕府将军，但后醍醐天皇拒绝给他这个头衔，因为他不想再回到屈从的地位。随后，足利尊氏在公元1336年7月神户附近的凑川之战中击败了后醍醐天皇的主要盟友新田义贞，然后占领了平安京。14世纪30年代的混乱和战争被平安京的一位匿名招牌画家诙谐地指出：

夜间袭击，武装抢劫，伪造文件，轻浮的女人......斩首，和尚脱帽，俗人剃头。

(Huffman, 43)

Go-Daigo was exiled for a second time, but he established his own court anyway at Yoshino, 95 kilometres (60 miles) south of Heiankyo. Ashikaga Takauji found himself a more compliant emperor, Komyo (r. 1336-1348 CE), to act as the state's figurehead and became shogun in 1338 CE, thus inaugurating the Ashikaga Shogunate (aka Muromachi Shogunate) which would rule Japan until 1573 CE. One loose end was Go-Daigo as there were now two emperors in Japan, a system known as the 'Dual Courts' or 'Northern and Southern Courts' (divided by the major and minor imperial lines rather than mere geography), which would not be resolved until 1392 CE when the southern court ceased to exist after a promise was made and then broken to alternate emperors between the two lines.

后醍醐天皇第二次被流放，但他还是在平安京以南95公里（60英里）的吉野建立了自己的宫廷。足利尊氏为自己找到了一个更顺从的光明天皇（公元1336-1348年），作为国家的形象代言人，并在公元1338年成为幕府将军，从而开启了足利幕府（又称室町幕府），该幕府统治日本直到公元1573年。这一情况直到公元1392年才得到解决，因为当时日本有两个天皇，这个系统被称为“双重宫廷”或“南北宫廷”（由大、小皇族划分，而不仅仅是地理上的划分），当时南朝在做出承诺后不复存在，然后在两条线之间被交替的皇帝打破。

室町幕府

The Ashikaga Shogunate got off to a poor start and set the tone for much of the period when Ashikaga Takauji's rivalry with his brother Tadayoshi broke out in a war that lasted from 1350 to 1352 CE. Takauji was victorious, and Tadayoshi was poisoned, a fate most likely arranged by his brother.

室町幕府有了一个糟糕的开端，当足利尊氏与他的兄弟足利忠义的竞争在公元1350年至1352年的战争中爆发时，为这个时期的大部分时间定下了基调。足利尊氏取得了胜利，而忠义则被毒死，这很可能是他哥哥安排的命运。

The system of government of the Ashikaga Shogunate followed much the same lines as the Kamakura Shogunate with a few additions. The position of deputy shogun (kanrei) was created as a liaison between the shogun and regional governors. A specific oversight of Kamakura was deemed advisable to make sure the Hojo family did not make a comeback, and this task was put into the hands of the Kanto deputy. Other regions were also considered a risk to the central government and so there was a similar deputy to supervise the regions of northwest Honshu and Kyushu.

室町幕府的政体与镰仓幕府的政体基本相同，只是增加了一些内容。副将军（Kanrei）的职位是作为幕府将军与地方长官之间的联络人而设立的。为了确保北条家族不会卷土重来，幕府对镰仓加强了监督，这项任务被交给了关东副将。其他地区也被认为对中央政府构成威胁，因此也有一个类似的副手来监督本州西北部和九州地区。

Perhaps ironically for a period known for its general lawlessness, the Ashikaga shoguns did add a few extras to Japan's established law codes. Ashikaga Takuiji added 17 articles which mostly dealt with the expected behaviour of samurai. The articles were largely based on the principles famously expressed by Prince Shotoku (regent of Japan from 594 to 622 CE) in his own 17-article constitution. Another new development was the idea that not only should convicted criminals be punished but also their families and even the communities in which they lived. This idea of collective responsibility was called renza (or enza) and sometimes resulted in people connected to the criminal receiving the same punishment. Whether the system reduced crime is a moot point but it did result in communities trying to resolve criminal cases before they came to the attention of the central authorities.

具有讽刺意味的是，也许对于一个以普遍无法无天而闻名的时期来说，足利将军确实为日本的既定法典增加了一些额外的内容。足利尊氏增加了17条，主要涉及武士的预期行为。这些条款主要是基于圣德太子（公元594年至622年的日本摄政王）在他自己的17条宪法中所表达的著名原则。另一个新的发展是，不仅被定罪的罪犯应受到惩罚，而且他们的家人甚至他们生活的社区也应受到惩罚。这种集体责任的思想被称为renza（或enza），有时会导致与罪犯有关的人受到同样的惩罚。该制度是否能减少犯罪是一个悬而未决的问题，但它确实导致社区在中央当局注意到犯罪案件之前就试图解决这些案件。

The shogunate held control of the central part of Japan, and the bureaucracy at the capital was relatively efficient, but the outer provinces were left semi-independent as local warlords (daimyo) ruled their own lands how they saw fit. Local officials and estate managers such as the jito found it much more difficult to secure the taxes the state was due from landlords who had no fear of any government reprisals. The state was obliged to find other means to fill its coffers and these strategies often did much to boost the economy as landowners and temples tried their hand at money-lending, the number of small businesses grew (especially brewers and distillers), and the government raked off their share through taxes. Another money-spinning scheme was to introduce tolls on roads and impose fees on temples. International trade also did well with Japan joining the Chinese Ming Dynasty's tribute system from 1401 CE. The Ming emperor even recognised the shogun as the 'king of Japan' in return, and goods were exchanged between the two states. Ming porcelain, silk, and bronze coins were popular while finely-worked swords, copper ore, and timber went in the other direction.

幕府控制着日本的中部地区，首都的官僚机构也相对高效，但外省却处于半独立状态，因为地方军阀（大名）以他们认为合适的方式统治自己的土地。地方官员和庄园经理（如地主）发现，要从不怕政府报复的地主那里获得国家应得的税款要困难得多。国家不得不寻找其他手段来充实其国库，而这些策略往往对促进经济发展大有裨益，因为地主和寺庙都在尝试放贷，小企业的数量也在增长（尤其是酿酒师和蒸馏器），而政府则通过税收来赚取他们的份额。另一个赚钱的计划是对道路征收通行费，对寺庙征收费用。随着日本从公元1401年开始加入中国明朝的朝贡体系，国际贸易也取得了不错的成绩。明朝皇帝甚至承认幕府将军为“日本国王”，作为回报，两个国家之间进行了货物交换。明朝的瓷器、丝绸和铜币在日本很受欢迎，而精制的刀剑、铜矿和木材则流向大陆。

Agriculture, despite the upheaval of the wars and occasional famines caused by the vagaries of weather which plagued the period, continued to thrive in the longer-term thanks to innovations like double-cropping and the use of fertilizers which had begun in the Kamakura period. Villages grew in number and size as farmers sought security in numbers and worked together to produce more and benefit from communal projects such as digging irrigation channels and building waterwheels. In the absence of any authority from the central government, villages governed themselves. Small councils or so were formed which made decisions regarding laws and punishments, organised community festivals, and decided on regulations within the community. Some villages got together to form leagues or ikki for their mutual benefit.

尽管有战争的动荡和偶尔因天气变化无常而造成的饥荒困扰着这一时期的农业，但由于从镰仓时代开始的双重种植和使用化肥等创新，农业在长期内继续蓬勃发展。村庄的数量和规模不断扩大，因为农民们寻求人数上的安全感，并一起努力生产更多的产品，并从挖掘灌溉渠道和建造水车等公共项目中受益。在没有来自中央政府的任何权力的情况下，村庄自我管理。人们成立了小型委员会，就法律和惩罚作出决定，组织社区节日，并决定社区内的法规。一些村庄为了共同的利益而聚集在一起，组成联盟（或ikki）。

Farmers generally did well in the period, and slavery all but disappeared, but women enjoyed fewer rights than under the Kamakura with, for example, a convention being established that brides join the household of their husbands whom, along with their mother-in-law, they were obliged to obey. Although women could still inherit property, there was a return to the convention that the oldest male inherited the family estate in order to reduce the fragmentation of land into parcels too small to be useful for different siblings.

这一时期，农民普遍生活得很好，奴隶制几乎消失了，但妇女享有的权利比镰仓时期少，例如，有一个惯例，即新娘要加入丈夫的家庭，她们必须服从丈夫和婆婆的命令。尽管妇女仍然可以继承财产，但为了减少土地被分割成小块，对不同的兄弟姐妹都没有用处的情况，又恢复了由最年长的男性继承家庭财产的惯例。

In 1543 CE the first European contact was made with Japan when three Portuguese traders had their Chinese junk ship blown onto its shores by a storm. Landing on the island of Tanegashima, southern Kyushu, they brought with them firearms which the Japanese adopted. More Europeans followed, including Christian missionaries, the most famous being Francis Xavier, a Spanish Jesuit who came to Kagoshima in 1549 CE. The new religion was sometimes enthusiastically adopted by daimyo as it often proved a ticket to greater trade relations with the Europeans sailing the East Asian seas.

公元1543年，欧洲与日本进行了第一次接触，当时三名葡萄牙商人的中国帆船被一场风暴吹到了岸边。他们在九州南部的种子岛登陆，带来了火器。更多的欧洲人接踵而至，包括基督教传教士，其中最著名的是弗朗西斯·泽维尔，他是一位西班牙耶稣会士，于公元1549年来到鹿儿岛。新的宗教有时会被大名们热情地采纳，因为它往往被证明是与航行在东亚海域的欧洲人建立更大贸易关系的门票。

日本室町时代（公元1333-1573年）最重要的艺术家之一雪舟（本名Toyo，公元1420-1506年）的一幅水墨山水画。这个例子是用泼墨技术画的。悬挂的卷轴，公元1495年。(东京国立博物馆)。

应仁之乱

The Onin War (1467-1477 CE) was a civil war with its name deriving from the year period. The timespan of the war and its long aftermath is often called the Sengoku period or Warring States period (1467-1568 CE). It was a time, as the period's name would suggest, of bitter rivalries, fighting and treachery amongst Japan's rival warlords and samurai, which brought hardship, robbery, and brutality to the doorstep of many ordinary people. Japan seemed at war with itself and its rulers bent on destruction. One anonymous poem, composed c. 1500 CE, captures the general mood of the times:

A bird with

One body but

Two beaks,

Pecking itself

To death.

(Henshall, 243)

应仁之乱（公元1467-1477年）是一场内战，其名称来源于年份。这场战争的时间跨度及其长期后果通常被称为战国时期或战国时代（公元1467-1568年）。正如这个时期的名称所暗示的那样，这是一个日本敌对军阀和武士之间的激烈竞争、战斗和背叛的时期，这给许多普通人带来了带来了苦难、抢劫和残暴。日本似乎在与自己交战，其统治者一心想要毁灭。一首约在公元1500年创作的匿名诗，捕捉了当时的总体情绪：

鸟有一个身体，

但有两张嘴。

俩嘴互啄

最后鸟死了。

The cause of the decade-long Onin War was, at least initially, the bitter rivalry between the Hosokawa and Yamana family groups, but in the end, it sucked in most of the influential clans and destroyed most of Heiankyo. The conflict revolved around each side backing a different candidate for the position of shogun - a particularly pointless debate since shoguns no longer had any real power. Rather, the war is seen by historians as merely a result of the overly aggressive warlords of Japan, the most powerful daimyo, being rather too keen to put their samurai to some use - good or bad. Even when the war ended in 1477 CE there was no victor and no resolution to the inherent militarism that fractured Japan for the next century as warlords fought each other with no one in particular ever achieving any dominance.

长达十年的应仁之战的起因，至少在最初，是细川氏和山名氏家族集团之间的激烈竞争，但最终，它吸纳了大多数有影响力的氏族，并摧毁了摧毁了平安京的大部分地区。冲突围绕着每一方支持不同的幕府将军候选人展开——这是一场特别无意义的辩论，因为幕府将军不再有任何实际权力。相反，历史学家认为这场战争仅仅是日本最强大的大名——最具侵略性的军阀们过于热衷于将他们的武士用于某种用途的结果，无论好坏。即使在公元1477年战争结束时，也没有胜利者，也没有解决在下个世纪分裂日本的固有军国主义，在接下来的一个世纪里，日本的军阀们互相争斗，没有人取得主导地位。

建筑与文化成就

Many important buildings were constructed during the Muromachi period. The Kinkakuji or 'Temple of the Golden Pavilion' - so called because of its shimmering gilded exterior - was built in Heiankyo in 1397 CE, followed by its twin, the Ginkakuji or 'The Serene Temple of the Silver Pavilion', completed in 1483 CE. Both were originally retirement estates for former shoguns but were each converted into Buddhist temple sites. Another converted private estate, also in Kyoto, is Ryoanji (1473 CE), which now has the most-visited Zen rock garden in Japan.

室町时代建造了许多重要的建筑。金阁寺因其闪亮的镀金外观而得名，它于公元1397年在平安京建成，随后其孪生的银阁寺于公元1483年建成。两者原本都是前幕府将军的养老院，但都被改建为佛教寺院。另一个改建的私人庄园也在京都，是龙安寺（公元1473年），现在这里拥有日本最受欢迎的禅宗假山花园。

Another development of the period was the establishment of the tearoom and the Japanese Tea Ceremony. The Tea Ceremony had been introduced to Japan much earlier by Zen Buddhist monks but it now became, thanks to the combined efforts of the monk Murato Shuko (1422-1502 CE) and the shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa (r. 1449-1473 CE), the restrained and precise ceremony that we know today as chanoyu. The setting was crucial and so sparsely furnished tearooms were added to the villas of the well-off in order to provide a calming space in which to perform the ceremony.

另一发展是茶室和日本茶道的建立。茶道很早就由禅宗僧人引入日本，但由于僧人村田珠光（公元1422-1502年）和幕府将军足利义政（公元1449-1473年）的共同努力下，它现在成为了我们今天所知道的日本茶道，即克制而精确的仪式。环境是至关重要的，因此在富人的别墅中增加了陈设简易的茶室，以提供一个平静的空间来举行仪式。

Other lasting cultural pursuits which sprang up during the period included early forms of flower arranging and Noh theatre, both of which also had roots in religious ceremonies and temple practices. The Zen religion would even have a significant influence on painting, epitomised by the work of the Zen priest Sesshu (real name Toyo, 1420-1506 CE) who specialised in suiboku, that is using only black ink and water on white paper scrolls, in a style that has been described as an austere form of impressionism with its ordinary landscape subjects depicted in monochrome. Sesshu's work is widely considered amongst the finest ever produced by a Japanese painter of any period.

在此期间兴起的其他持久的文化追求包括早期的插花和能剧，这两者都源于宗教仪式和寺庙习俗。禅宗甚至对绘画产生了重大影响，禅宗僧人雪舟（本名Toyo，公元1420-1506年）的作品就是一个缩影，他擅长水墨画，即在白纸卷上只使用黑墨和水，其风格被描述为一种朴素的印象主义形式，以单色描绘普通风景主题。雪舟的作品被广泛认为是任何时期日本画家所创作的最精美作品之一。

Finally, because of the constant threat of war and pillage in the Muromachi period, castles were built with much greater frequency than previously in towns, at mountain passes, and on larger estates. The latter type, which could take the form of fortified mansions, were known as yashiki; Ichijodani (base of the Asakura family) and the moated Tsutsujigasaki (of the Takeda family) were excellent examples of this building trend. Some castles, such as Omi-Hachiman near Lake Biwa, caused an entire town to later spring up around them, the jokomachi. Not as yet the grand multi-storied stone structures of later centuries, the castles of the period were, nevertheless, often sophisticated defensive structures despite the predominant use of wood. Constructed on large stone bases, the wooden superstructures included walls, towers, and gates, which had narrow windows for archers and from which hung boulders on ropes, ready to be dropped on any attackers.

最后，由于室町时代不断受到战争和掠夺的威胁，在城镇、山口和较大的庄园中建造城堡的频率比以前高得多。后一种类型的城堡采用加固的形式，被称为“yashiki”；Ichijodani（朝仓家族的基地）和有护城河的Tsutsujigasaki（武田家族的基地）是这种建筑趋势的优秀范例。一些城堡，如琵琶湖附近的近江八幡，后来导致整个城镇在它们周围涌现，即城下町。当时的城堡还不是后来几个世纪宏伟的多层石头结构，尽管城堡主要使用木材，但往往是复杂的防御结构。在大型石基上建造的木制上层建筑包括城墙、塔楼和城门，城门上有供弓箭手使用的狭窄射箭孔，上面用绳索挂着巨石，随时准备投向任何攻击者。

衰落与织田信长

The end of the Muromachi period came when the Ashikaga Shogunate was terminated by the warlord Oda Nobunaga (l. 1534-1582 CE). Oda Nobunaga had expanded his territory gradually through the 1550/60s CE from his base at Nagoya Castle as he defeated all comers. He finally seized Heiankyo in 1568 CE and then exiled the last Ashikaga shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiaki, in 1573 CE. Yoshiaki, who had in any case always been Nobunaga's puppet, was technically still the shogun until 1588 CE but he had no power as warlords now dominated the government and country. Nobunaga would rule over a much more unified central Japan until his death in 1582 CE. The unification of the country would continue under his immediate successors, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1537-1598 CE) and Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543-1616 CE). This next period of Japan's history would be known as the Azuchi-Momoyama Period (1568/73-1600 CE).

当足利幕府被军阀织田信长（1534-1582 ）终结时，室町时代结束了。织田信长在16世纪50/60年代从他的基地名古屋城逐步扩大其领土，因为他打败了所有的来犯者。他最终在公元1568年占领了平安京，然后在公元1573年流放了最后一位足利将军，足利义昭。无论如何，义昭一直是信长的傀儡，直到公元1588年仍是幕府将军，但他没有权力，因为军阀们主导着政府和国家。后来，信长统治了一个更加统一的日本中部，直到他于公元1582年去世。在他的直接继承人丰臣秀吉（公元1537-1598年）和德川家康（公元1543-1616年）的领导下，国家统一继续进行。下一个时期被称为安土桃山时代（又称织丰时代）（1568/73-1600 CE）。