英专学硕-外语语言学-考研笔记-3-1
Chapter THREE——「Words and Morphology」
3-1——「Words」
3-1-1词的识别与分类[非重点]
A.词的三种含义[认识]
B.词的稳定性、相对连续性、最小自由形式[认识]
C.词的分类[认识]
(C-a).变化词与非变化词[认识]
(C-b).语法词与功能词[认识]
(C-c).封闭类词与开放类词[选填判断]
D.词性[自行了解]
3-1-2【名词解释】+【规范术语】！
A.词的三种含义
(1). Word is a physically definable unit.
词是自然的有界限的单位。
在书面形式上表现得尤为明显，一个间隔一个词！
(2). Word is both a general term and a specific term.
词既是一个普通的术语，又是专门的术语。
[概念理解]——faster, write, fast, writes, writing, faster, written.
There are seven words, so each of them is a general term.
But, if we divide them into two groups, namely,
write, writes, writing, written;
fast, faster, fastest,
the original word is a specific term.
所以，词具有普通术语和专业术语的双重特性！
[辨证概念]——The original word is the specific term, so is “writes” too?
词具有普通术语和专业术语的双重特性，这句话是没问题！ “词”是我们普遍认识的单词，像“writes” “writing” “written”都是词的变体。
“writes”你觉得有双重性就有，觉得没有就没有，应该没有。但这个问题，纯内耗，没意义！任何词汇书没有单拎出来的“writes”这个词。
(3). Word is a grammatical unit.
A这一部分，在[胡-第三版]有，但[胡-第五版]就消失，[戴]压根没出现过，[星火]中涉及了这个考点，但目前没有发现作为考题出现，可供参考！
B. Identification of words, 准确的理解是“词的性质”。
(1).stability.
nothingness≠nessnothing; chairman≠manchiar; birds≠brds; clever≠clver.
词非常稳定，它不能重排、不能倒置、不能增删变动任何一个字母。且错误的形式无意义，不能被接受。
同时，就词素而言，cept-, cip-, 元音变位，但“抓,拿,获取”意思不变。
con-, com-, col-，辅音变化，“共同”意思不变。
就句子而言，可以重排、倒装，“John is a clever boy.”＝“A clever boy John is.”
所以，不难得到，词是所有语言单位中最稳定的[胡]。语言单位，即morpheme⇌word⇌phrase⇌clause⇌sentence.
(2).Relative Uninterruptibilty.
相对连续性，就结构来说，一个词中间不能介入成分，你可以接前缀后缀，但中间你不能加东西。就发音和书写来说，单词不能有停顿。
[标准术语]——Uninterruptibility means that new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word, and nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word.
(3).a minimum free form.
词是最小的自由形式，这句话是正确的。
根据交流表达来确定的，
——Is Jane coming this evening?
——Possibly.
你最小能自由表达的形式就是一个词。你不能嘴里蹦出来一个词根或一个字母，除了特殊情况。
然后，词是能独立构成一个完整句子的最小单位。
C. Classification of Words词的分类
In the light of variability, words can be divided into variable words and invariable words.
In terms of meaning expressed by words, they can be divided into grammatical words and lexical words.
In view of membership, words can be divided into close-class words and open-class words.
(C-a).关于「Invariable Word」与「Variable word」
(1).我需要解释一下，Invariable Words指的是不能发生曲折变化的一类词。
你现在可以理解为，Invariable Words是不涉及单复数,所有格或时态而变位的词，即词尾不能加词缀“-s”, “-ing”, “-ed”, “’s/s’”。
(2).像连词(since, and, but, when)、介词(of, over, with, through)、感叹词(hello, goodbye)、不能做动词和名词的大部分形容词和副词(seldom, sudden)等是Invariable Words。
(3).你不能用【结尾是否能添加成分】来判断，如果那样子，“whenever”, “without”, “suddenly”, “overcome”, “throughout”就很伤心难过。
(4).像单复数同形的名词(fish, sleep)，形式上来说，作动词是Variable Words; 且意义上来说，它存在有单复数变化的行为，所以是Variable Words.
(C-b).
(5).连词、介词、冠词、代词、助动词auxiliary是Grammatical Words, 又称Funtional Words。名词、动词、形容词和副词是Lexical words，又叫Content Words。
(6).词汇词主要指代物质、动作和性质的一类词，承担了主语的主要内容。而语法词负责把不同的内容片段连接起来。
(7-特-课外补充).Be可以是系动词，起连接作用，应该属于功能词。但Be可以是实义动词，即词汇词。have可以是助动词，其连接作用，应属于语法词，也可以是实义动词。一般而言，兼功能和词汇的词被定义为功能词。
可以说，少部分语法词有可以有词汇词的性质。
(8)[胡-第五版].While we always need to resort to content words to denote entities, properties and events, function words on the one hand help us express such meaning precisely, and on the other hand combine content words into grammatical sentences.
e.g.John bought the book yesterday;
John bought a book yesterday.
It is clear that these two articles “a, the”, both being function words, help add to the preciseness of the meaning expressed by content words.
(9)[胡-第五版].In addition, function words play an essential role in producing a grammatical sentence that can involve many separate content words and phrases.
Ex. John knew that Mary was to be present at the conference.
In the above example, the content words, although contributing to the concrete meaning of the sentence, cannot form a grammatical sentence by themselves; instead, function words are needed to combine them.
So, in this sense, we can say that function words are like glue that binds words and phrases together.
各有各的分工，共建美好句子。
(C-c).
(10).封闭词数目固定、数量有限。代词、介词、连词、冠词，属于Close-class Word.
一般不轻易增加或衍生新的成员——[戴]举了个例子，女权运动兴起时，曾提议借鉴法语【-e阴性】，试图通过“their, them”衍生出第二中性单三或阴性。但事实证明，没得到普遍应用，很难的。
(11).相比之下，开放词的数目基本上无限的，随着各种思想、新发明或者新发现的产生，词典会不断添加新词。名词、动词、形容词和副词是Open-class Word.
e.g. “Beatnik”新添加到名词中的一个词，指垮掉的一代、排斥或避免传统的人。和“the lost generation”, 有异曲同工之妙，对应着上世纪战后美国青年人那一代。
再比如，“ungelivable”, 我小时候“不给力”这个词在国内挺流行的，而这个英语单词应该借鉴了“unbelievable”.
还有，“glocal”, global+local=全球本土化，在全球化的浪潮中，为适应本土应运而生的一个词。
(12).[胡-第三版]补充说——实际上，靠词性分类的Close-class和Open-class之间界限并不是泾渭分明的，也不是二元对立、非前即后的——比如像regarding, throughout, out of, according to, with regard to, in spite of, by means of等介词词组，原本相对开放的动词，在此搭配介词，整体当作介词短语就表现得封闭。
至于，像助动词、情态动词，数量上来说，相对封闭。
D. Part of Speech词性
(13).建立了九个词性，名词noun、代词pronoun、形容词adjective、动词verb、副词adverb、介词preposition、连词conjunction、感叹词interjection和冠词article.
(14).新引进的有，助词partical，包括“动词不定式to”, “否定词not”, 以及介词短语中如get by, do up, look back中的by, up, back. 这个在英语中表现得不算太明显，up我知道法语中【否定结构ne…pas】【元音粘连词-t-】等属于助词。
(15)[胡-第三版].按传统语法来讲，代词Pro-form是替代名词结构的词。但实际上，代词可以有代形容词、代动词、代副词、代处所词(代介词短语引导的地点状语)。
e.g. 代形容词Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine.
代动词Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did.
代副词Pro-adverb: He hopes he’ll win and I hope so too.
代所处词Pro-locative: Jame’s hiding there, behind the door.
(16).限定词determiner
Pre-determiners, Central determiners, Post-determiners
前+中+后位，不能错位，且同类不兼容。
When different sub-classes of determiners occur togethcr, they follow the order of pre-determiners + central determiners + post-determiners.
Thus we donot find exprcssions like “their all trouble”, “five the all boys”.
Within each sub-class, the members are usually exclusive of each other.
So we do not have expressions like “the this boy”, “all both girls”.
再补充一个特例是，序数词可以在基数词前面，如in the first two days, another three weeks.
然后，从[胡-第三版]到[胡-第五版]，这一部分删改了很多内容。高校的参考书目以最新的[胡-第五版]为参考书目，但[胡-第三版]我所列举的内容，我感觉有用，所以愿君明悉！
Chapter THREE——「Words and Morphology」
3-1——「Words」
3-1-1词的识别与分类[非重点]
A.词的三种含义[认识]
B.词的稳定性、相对连续性、最小自由形式[认识]
C.词的分类[认识]
(C-a).变化词与非变化词[认识]
(C-b).语法词与功能词[认识]
(C-c).封闭类词与开放类词[选填判断]
D.词性[自行了解]
3-1-2【名词解释】+【规范术语】！
「Content Word/Lexical Word」and「Function Words/Grammatical Word」
「Clossd-class word」and「Open-class word」
「Variable word」and「Invariable word」
「The Classification of Word」and「Word Class/Part of Speech」
「Content Word/Lexical Word」and「Function Words/Grammatical Word」
[星火]Grammatical Word refers to those which express grammatical meanings. The grammatical words serve to link different parts of a language together, so they are also called Function Words. Conjunctions, Prepositions, Articles and Pronouns are grammatical words.
[戴]Function Words are words which have little meaning on their own, but which show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.
[记忆卡片]——1.little meaning on their 2.连接作用3.哪些词性是功能词？
[星火]Lexical words refer to those which have lexical meanings, and mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality. The lexical words carry the main content of a language, so the lexical words are also called Content Words. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are lexical words.
[戴]Content words are words which refer to a thing, quality, state, or action and which have meaning when the words are used alone. Content words are mainly nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
[记忆卡片]——1.substance. entity, thing, action, quality, state, property, events and so on. 或者something, someone, somewhere and so on. 2.主要内容 3.哪些词性是词汇词？
「Clossd-class Word」and「Open-class Word」
[胡+星火]The distinction of grammatical words and lexical words leads to the distinction of “closed-class” words and “open-class” words.
A word that belongs to the CLOSED-CLASS is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others. One cannot easily add or deduce a new member.
However, the OPEN-CLASS is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventions, or discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives and many Adverbs are all open-class ltems.
「Variable word」and「Invariable word」
[星火+胡]As for Varible Words, they may have inflective changes. That is, the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant.
[星火+胡]Invariable Words refer to those words such as “since”, “when”, “seldom”, “glocal” “through”, “hello”. They do not have inflective endings.
辨证概念——「The Classification of Word」and「Word Class/Part of Speech」
[胡-up改编]「The Classification of Word」
We can generalize some common features of words, and we can also find those commonality or difference among various words.
[戴]「Word Class」refers to a group of words which are similar in function. Words are grouped into word class according to how they combine with other words, how they change their form, etc.
[胡]A more practical way is to classify words either by analyzing their various grammatical, semantic, and phonological propertics, or by grouping them into word class according to their formal similarities, such as inflections and distribution. This is close to the notion of PARTS OF SPEECH in traditional grammar.
这一部分，「Word Class」与「Part of Speech」在此属于同等概念，不做区别。而「The Classification of Word」是分类学中的基本概念，而通过特定的科学分类法能得到词性组。
比如，are, have, yours, apple, beat, my, food, useful, in, without, badly ...
将单词归类是「The Classification of Word」，有很多种方法归类，比如按阴阳性分类，按积极消极中性词义归类等等。其中，有一个方法，与功能语法相关的方法，把单词归类成了有不同词性的词。
至于具体是什么，书上写得比较模糊，且有歧义。
词性，应该是通过，一个词在句子在的【等效替代】得到的——这一表述更好一些，仅作为了解。
例题赏析——(2011-北航) Read the following paragraph and list all the function words, including all forms of be. Give the percentage of function words in this paragraph.
She was a small woman, old and wrinkled. When she started washing for us, she was already past seventy. Most Jewish women of her age were sickly, weak, broken in body. But this washwoman, small and thin as she was, possessed a strength that came from generations of peasant ancestors. Mother would count out to her a bag of laundry that had accumulated over several weeks. She would lift the heavy bag,load it on her narrow shoulders, and carry it the long way home.
代词、介词、冠词、连词、助动词、be！不得不说考官真贴心把be给了，遮羞布，把【系动词是否是功能词】这个课本上不曾有过的设想给巧妙带过去了。
She was a small woman, old and wrinkled. When she started washing for us, she was already past seventy. Most Jewish women of her age were sickly, weak, broken in body. But this washwoman, small and thin as she was, possessed a strength that came from generations of peasant ancestors. Mother would count out to her a bag of laundry that had accumulated over several weeks. She would lift the heavy bag, load it on her narrow shoulders, and carry it the long way home.
43➗85≈51%
易错点在于she was already past seventy, 其中，past是介词。
be+介词短语，形式不算陌生，
比如：She is in red她穿着红色的衣服。
John is at work他在上班。
关于「Content word」and「Function words」，还有一段话比较重要，也需要背诵和默写。
[胡-第五版].
While we always need to resort to content words to denote entities, properties and events, function words on the one hand help us express such meaning more precisely, and on the other hand combine content words into grammatical sentences.
e.g.John bought the book yesterday;
John bought a book yesterday.
It is clear that these two articles “a, the”, both being function words, help add to the preciseness of the meaning expressed by content words.
In addition, function words play an essential role in producing a grammatical sentence that can involve many separate content words and phrases.
Ex. John knew that Mary was to be present at the conference.
In the above example, the content words, although contributing to the concrete meaning of the sentence, cannot form a grammatical sentence by themselves; instead, function words are needed to combine them.
So, in this sense, we can say that function words are like glue that binds words and phrases together.
出题方式有——“为什么说功能词像连接单词的胶水？解释并举例说明。”
“请简述实词和功能词的区别，并举例说明。”
