中世纪世界生活手册（十）
上一章
奥斯曼·宾·阿凡、阿里和分裂的苗头
先知的女婿奥斯曼·宾·阿凡（644-656年）接替欧玛尔成为伊斯兰国家的哈里发。在其统治期间，伊斯兰势力的统治范围扩大到北非、塞浦路斯和高加索地区。最重要的是，奥斯曼成立了一个委员会，以确定《古兰经》的经典版本和诵读规范。这个版本迅速遍及伊斯兰世界，奥斯曼下令销毁不同的版本。他确保全球的穆斯林将使用相同的神圣文本，这一过程类似于基督教法学博士在第三和第四世纪对圣经的修正。
The Prophet’s son-in-law, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656), succeeded Umar as caliph of the Islamic state. During his reign Islamic rule spread into North Africa, Cyprus, and the Caucasus. Most significantly, it was Uthman who formed a committee to fix the canonical version of the Quran and the norms of its recitation. This version was dispatched around the Islamic world, and Uthman ordered variant versions to be destroyed. Uthman ensured that Muslims globally would use the same sacred text in a process analogous to the fixing of the Bible by Christian doctors of the law in the third and fourth centuries.
奥斯曼是一位富有的麦加商人，属于古莱什部落的倭马亚分支。他被选为哈里发，是因为他的虔诚，作为先知的第一批弟子之一，他与先知关系密切，而且富有。然而，作为麦加贵族的一员，他的遗产和行为方式引发了严重的不和。有人指责他搞裙带关系。其他人则指责他违反了哈里发欧玛尔的坚持，即所有被征服的土地都属于新的伊斯兰国家，而不是个别阿拉伯地主。奥斯曼于656年被暗杀，由穆罕默德的表弟和女婿阿里·宾·阿比·塔利卜（656-661）继任，他曾与先知的女儿法蒂玛结婚。奥斯曼的谋杀案没有得到报复，因此阿里面临着来自家族报复性攻击的巨大风险。
Uthman was a wealthy Meccan merchant belonging to the Umayyad branch of the Quraysh tribe. He was elected to the caliphate for his piety, closeness to the Prophet as one of his first disciples, and wealth. Yet as a member of the aristocracy of Mecca, he had a heritage and acted in ways that stimulated grave discord. Some accused him of nepotism. Others accused him of violating Caliph Umar’s insistence that all conquered land belong to the new Islamic state rather than to individual Arab landowners. Uthman was assassinated in 656 and succeeded by Ali ibn Abi Talib (r. 656–661), Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, who had married the Prophet’s daughter, Fatima. The murder of Uthman had not been avenged, and therefore Ali was at considerable risk of revenge attacks from the family.
阿里是穆罕默德家族中最早接受伊斯兰教的成员之一，也是伊斯兰教最忠实的支持者之一。作为一名出色且勇敢的士兵，阿里在所有早期的伊斯兰教战斗中表现突出。关于阿里的剑Zulfiqar的伊斯兰民间传说，可以比作亚瑟王关于神剑的传说。阿里因其虔诚、禁欲主义以及对《古兰经》的完美认识和理解而受到赞誉，并被认为是信士的典范——圣行的忠实、专业解释者（被称为“真主的雄狮”）。
Ali had been one of the first members of Muhammad’s family to accept Islam and was among his most faithful supporters. A brilliant and brave soldier, Ali distinguished himself in all the early Islamic battles. Islamic popular legends about Ali’s sword, Zulfiqar, may be likened to the Arthurian legends about Excalibur. Ali was exalted for his piety, asceticism, and perfect knowledge and understanding of the Quran and was considered a faithful, expert interpreter of the correct customs of the Prophet, the Sunna.
阿里只是不情愿地接受了哈里发，因为他担心被怀疑从奥斯曼的死亡中谋取利益。然而，当他拒绝审判杀害奥斯曼的凶手时，奥斯曼的侄子、叙利亚总督穆阿维亚·本·阿布·苏富扬（602-680）起兵反对他。他的叛乱得到了穆罕默德的妻子，即第一任哈里发阿布·巴克尔的女儿阿伊莎的支持。阿里的支持者和穆阿维亚的游击队之间爆发了内战。阿里于661年在库法被暗杀，从而使他成为前四任哈里发中第三个死于刺客之手的人。领导权传给了穆阿维亚。阿里遇刺导致了逊尼派和什叶派之间的分裂。
Ali only reluctantly accepted the caliphate, fearing suspicion of seeking to benefit from the death of Uthman. However, when he refused to try the murderers of Uthman, Uthman’s nephew Muawiyya ibn Abi Sufyan (602–680), a governor of Syria, rose up against him. His rebellion was supported by Muhammad’s wife, Aisha, daughter of the first caliph, Abu Bakr. Civil war broke out between Ali’s supporters and the partisans of Muawiyya. Ali was assassinated in 661 at Kufa, thereby making him the third of the first four caliphs to die by assassins’ hands. Leadership passed to Muawiyya. Ali’s assassination led to a schism between Sunnis and Shiites.
逊尼派和什叶派
逊尼（Sunnis）源于圣所（圣训），即正宗的正统方式，承认穆阿维亚以及前四个哈里发的合法性，他们称之为“被正确引导的人”，他们的权威来自于从阿布·巴克尔当选时建立的社区共识原则。
The Sunnis, derived from Sunna, the proper orthodox way, recognized the legitimacy of Muawiyya as well as the first four caliphs, whom they called “the rightly guided ones,” whose authority was derived from the principle of the consensus of the community established from the time of the election of Abu Bakr.
反对逊尼派的是什叶派，他们是阿里的党派，来自阿拉伯语的Shiat Ali，即阿里党，他们否认之前三个哈里发的合法性，并认为穆罕默德在一次事件中提名阿里继任伊斯兰社会的领袖，而逊尼派和什叶派对该事件的解释存在争议。阿里的党派认为，哈里发应该保持在先知家族的直系血统中。
Against the Sunnis were the Shiites, who were the partisans of Ali, from the Arabic Shiat Ali, the party of Ali, who denied the legitimacy of the three preceding caliphs and believed that Muhammad had nominated Ali to succeed him as head of the Islamic community during an event whose interpretation is disputed among Sunnis and Shiites. Ali’s partisans believed that the caliphate should remain in the direct line of descent of the Prophet’s family.
这种分裂的政治和神学层面可与导致天主教和东正教之间大分裂的因素相媲美。逊尼派认为哈里发是先知的代言人和法律的捍卫者，是社区的世俗领袖。确定宗教正统性以及界定和裁决宗教法律事务的权力属于乌里玛（学者），他们在研究和解释《古兰经》以及根据经文、先知的圣训和社区的共识（称为ijma）解释法律方面受过专门训练。另一方面，什叶派不承认对《古兰经》或法律的任何共识解释。它相信伊玛目（直译为教长，即领袖）在传授教义方面有卓越的权威，它认为穆罕默德指定阿里为教义的解释者。阿里又指定了自己的继承人，每个人都会在漫长的继承过程中指定一个神圣的接受者。什叶派认为这条继承线继承了先知的神赐魅力。
The political and theological dimensions of this division were comparable to those that gave rise to the Great Schism between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. The Sunnis viewed the caliphs as the vicars of the Prophet and defenders of the law. The caliph was the temporal leader of the community. Authority to determine religious orthodoxy and define and adjudicate matters of religious law was invested in the ulema (scholars), who were specially trained in the study and interpretation of the Quran and in the interpretation of the law based on scripture, the Sunna of the Prophet, and the consensus of the community, called ijma. Shiism, on the other hand, did not recognize any consensus interpretation of the Quran or the law. It believed in preeminent authority of the imam, the leader, for imparting lessons, and it held that Muhammad had named Ali as the interpreter of doctrine. Ali, in turn, was to name his own successor, and each would name a holy recipient in a long line of succession. This line of succession was thought to have inherited the divinely endowed charisma of the Prophet.
逊尼派认为这种继承是亵渎神明的。在阿里和穆阿维亚之间的冲突中，出现了第三个团体，被称为“哈瓦利及派”，意思是“出去的人”。之所以这样称呼他们，是因为658年，在阿里和穆阿维亚就谁应该继承哈里发的问题进行仲裁时，哈瓦利及派退出了对阿里或穆阿维亚的支持，声称此事应该由真主来决定，他将决定争执的结果。哈瓦利及派严格遵守《古兰经》，否认古莱什部落有任何特殊权利，并主张哈里发可以是任何穆斯林，不分种族或部落归属，只要他有必要的才能和素质，特别是纯洁性，使他成为所有穆斯林中最优秀的人。
Sunnis considered such succession blasphemy. During the conflict between Ali and Muawiyya a third group emerged and came to be known as the Kharijites, meaning “those who go out.” They were so called because in 658, during the arbitrations between Ali and Muawiyya over who should inherit the caliphate, the Kharijites withdrew their support from Ali and Muawiyya, claiming that the matter should be decided by God alone, who would determine the outcome of the battle. Their strict conformity to the Quran denied that the Quraysh tribe had any special rights and asserted that the caliph could be any Muslim, irrespective of race or tribal affiliation, so long as he had the necessary talent and qualities, especially the purity, to make him the finest of all Muslims.
先知穆罕默德家族的各个分支都吵着要统治权，但最终穆阿维亚和倭马亚家族在伊斯兰教的多数意见中占上风。什叶派认为阿里和他的后代是社会的合法统治者（伊玛目），他们并没有放弃自己的信念，认为自己是合法的继承人。他们还宣称，阿里从穆罕默德那里得到了一种特殊的知识和灵性，使他对《古兰经》有一种独特的、深奥的理解。680年，阿里的次子侯赛因·本·阿里与一群亲属一起来到伊拉克，在库法附近集结军队，以打击穆阿维亚的儿子耶齐德的军队。侯赛因和他的追随者在卡尔巴拉的战斗中被杀。这一事件发生在穆哈兰姆月的前十天，当时许多穆斯林模仿先知的习俗，自愿举行阿舒拉节斋戒。对什叶派来说，阿舒拉节被转化为一个巨大的哀悼日，是对侯赛因“受难”的仪式性纪念，类似于基督教圣周（受难周）期间对基督受难的纪念。
Various branches of the prophet Muhammad’s family clamored to rule, but in the end Muawiyya and the Umayyads would prevail in the majority opinion of Islam. The Shiites, who regarded Ali and his descendants as the legitimate rulers (imams) of the community, did not relinquish their conviction that they were the rightful heirs. They had also promulgated the idea that Ali had received from Muhammad a special knowledge and spirituality that gave him a unique, esoteric understanding of the Quran. In the year 680 Ali’s second son, Husayn ibn Ali, along with a group of kinsmen moved to Iraq to gather an army near Kufa to combat the forces of Muawiyya’s son, Yazid. Husayn and his followers were killed in the battle at Karbala. The event occurred sometime during the first 10 days of the month of Muharram, when many Muslims observed the voluntary fast of Ashura in imitation of the Prophet’s custom. For Shiites the feast of Ashura would be converted into a day of great mourning, a ritual celebration of the “passion” of Husayn similar to the commemoration of Christ’s crucifixion during Holy Week.
倭马亚王朝哈里发
尽管继承的冲突导致四位第一任哈里发中的三位暴毙，但穆斯林认为阿布·巴克尔、欧玛尔、奥斯曼和阿里是“受到正确引导的哈里发”，即Khulafa' al-rashidun，因为他们作为先知最亲密的伙伴，与先知关系密切，他们被选举的过程是协商一致的，他们的领导是平等的，而不是君主的平等性质。这种传统的部落领导模式在大约661年至680年的穆阿维亚统治时期被打破。穆阿维亚是倭马亚哈里发中第一个几乎是世袭的哈里发。他选择了他的儿子耶齐德继任，并说服了选举哈里发的议会承认他儿子为统治者。这种新的哈里发继承模式实际上将哈里发变成了一个君主制国家。倭马亚王朝从661年持续到750年，直到被阿拨斯王朝推翻，后倭马亚王朝（科尔多瓦哈里发国）在西班牙从711年持续到1031年（一说是756年至1031年）。
Despite the conflict of succession that resulted in the violent death of three of the four first caliphs, Muslims regard Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali as “the rightly guided caliphs,” or Khulafa’ al-rashidun, by virtue of their proximity to the Prophet as his closest companions, the consensual process by which they were elected, and the egalitarian nature of their leadership as a first among equals rather than as monarchs. This model of traditional tribal leadership broke down during the reign of Muawiyya, who ruled from about 661 to 680. Muawiyya was the first of a virtually hereditary line of Umayyad caliphs. He selected his son, Yazid, to succeed him and convinced the council of men who elected the caliph to recognize his son as ruler. This new model of caliphal succession virtually transformed the caliphate into a monarchy. The Umayyad dynasty lasted from 661 to 750 until their overthrow by the Abbasids and from 711 to 1031 in Spain.
作为与以往传统决裂的标志，穆阿维亚将首都迁至叙利亚的大马士革。那座城市位于一个物产丰富的地域，可以让宫廷、政府和军队衣食无忧。大马士革也是一个方便的城市，可以控制东地中海的海岸线和东边的土地。在战略上，大马士革当然优于麦地那，哈里发从它的基地向北非扩张，称为马格里布（“远西”）。第一个重要的马格里布地区城市是拜占庭非洲省的凯鲁万，位于现代突尼斯。伊斯兰的军队向西移动，在七世纪末到达摩洛哥的大西洋海岸。然后，他们从703-704年开始进入西班牙，表面上是为了干预西哥特统治者之间的内战，并在716年前征服伊比利亚半岛的大部分地区。在另一个方向上，倭马亚王朝越过胡拉山，最远到达了奥克苏斯河谷（阿姆河谷，历史上以其拉丁名称Oxus或希腊语 Ὦξος 为人所知）和印度西北部。
As a sign of his break with the previous tradition, Muawiyya moved the capital to Damascus, Syria. That city was situated in a country of abundance and surplus that could feed and clothe a court, government, and army. Damascus also was a convenient city for controlling the eastern Mediterranean coastlands and the land to the east of them. Strategically, Damascus certainly was superior to Medina, and from its base the caliphate expanded across North Africa, called the Maghrib (“the Far West”). The first important Maghribi city was Qayrawan, in the Byzantine province of Africa, in modern Tunisia. The armies of Islam moved westward, reaching the Atlantic coast of Morocco by the end of the seventh century. Then they crossed into Spain, beginning in 703–704, ostensibly to intervene in the civil war between the Visigoth rulers, and would conquer most of the Iberian Peninsula by 716. In the other direction the Umayyads moved beyond Khurasan, reaching as far as the Oxus Valley and northwestern India.
倭马亚王朝的这个新帝国需要一种新的政府风格。阿拉伯地区的居民已经习惯了平等的部落统治形式。穆罕默德和“被正确引导”的哈里发们没有以任何明显的方式将自己与他们的臣民区分开来，他们的生活谦逊而朴实。以前拜占庭和萨珊帝国的臣民习惯于一种不同的领导模式，在这种模式下，领导者是全能的、距离民众遥远的，官员们沉浸在令人眼花缭乱的宫廷仪式和典礼中。倭马亚统治者模仿了拜占庭帝国和波斯王权的宫廷模式。他们建造了富丽堂皇的宫殿，用宫廷图案进行装饰，这些图案在罗马艺术中找到了明显的先例。倭马亚王朝开创了一种典型的宫廷与君主文化，其中统治者是艺术和建筑的主顾。
This new empire of the Umayyads required a new style of government. The inhabitants of Arabia had been accustomed to a form of egalitarian tribal rule. Muhammad and the rightly guided caliphs did not distinguish themselves in any visible way from their subjects and lived modestly and unpretentiously. The former subjects of the Byzantine and Sassanid Empires were accustomed to a different model of leadership in which the leader was all-powerful and distant, enmeshed in dazzling court ritual and ceremonial. The Umayyad rulers imitated the courtly customs of the Byzantine Empire and the Persian kingship. They built magnificent palaces richly decorated with courtly motifs that find their obvious precedents in Roman art. The Umayyads inaugurated a courtly and monarchical culture in which the ruler was the patron of the arts and architecture.
他们建造了令人自豪的清真寺，作为伊斯兰教辉煌和统治的明显标志。他们从拜占庭人那里获得灵感，改造了财政和行政系统。他们还按照拜占庭和萨珊的模式改革军队。早期作为圣战战士的自愿性和无偿性军队被定期带薪部队所取代。与军队队长和部落首领有关的新统治者取代了曾经领导伊斯兰政治的麦加和麦地那的领导家族。伊拉克的城市被忠于大马士革哈里发的地方长官所控制。
They built proud mosques as a visible sign of the splendor and rule of Islam. They drew their inspiration from the Byzantines in remodeling the fiscal and administrative systems. They also reformed the army along Byzantine and Sassanian models. Early voluntary and unpaid armies that had worked as holy warriors on jihad were replaced by regularly paid forces. New rulers associated with army captains and tribal chiefs replaced the leading families of Mecca and Medina that had led Islamic politics. Cities of Iraq were controlled by local governors loyal to the caliphs in Damascus.
在倭马亚王朝时期，阿拉伯语成为这个庞大帝国的普遍统一语言。阿拉伯语作为新的伊斯兰教义揭示语言，也成为商业和管理的常用语言。在阿卜杜勒-麦立克·本·麦尔万·本·赫凯姆（685-705年）的哈里发时期，阿拉伯文字也被印在新的硬币上。金钱象征着权力，并体现了民族特性。新货币自豪地用阿拉伯语宣称真主的唯一性和真主使者穆罕默德的真理。与罗马人所征服的新省份的拉丁化惊人地相似，阿拉伯语是权力和精英文化的语言。整个伊斯兰国家的皈依者和穆斯林采用阿拉伯语，并使之成为他们自己的语言，在诗歌、散文、历史和其他体裁的创作中与阿拉伯人竞争。
Under the Umayyads the Arabic language became the universal unifier in the vast empire. Arabic, the language in which the new Islamic doctrine had been revealed, also became the language of commerce and administration. During the caliphate of Abd al-Malik (r. 685– 705), Arabic was also printed on new coinage. Money symbolized power and exemplified national identity. New coins proudly proclaimed in Arabic the oneness of God and the truth of his messenger, Muhammad. In a way strikingly parallel to the Latinization of the new provinces conquered by the Romans, Arabic was the language of power and elite culture. Converts and dhimmis throughout the Islamic lands adopted Arabic and made it their own, competing with the Arabs in the composition of poetry, prose, historical, and other genres.
虽然倭马亚王朝在大多数情况下是由高效的统治者来管理，但倭马亚王朝宫廷文化的富丽堂皇和世俗装饰开始让许多穆斯林感到不满，他们渴望回到更虔诚的传统生活方式和统治模式。当哈里发希沙姆一世在743年去世时，哈瓦利及派、阿里派和其他派别纷纷反叛。阿拔斯派是先知穆罕默德的叔叔阿拔斯的后裔，他们在一场血腥的政变中夺取了权力，谋杀了倭马亚家族的所有成员。一位倭马亚王子设法逃脱了屠杀，逃到了西班牙。
Although the Umayyads were for the most part efficient and effective rulers, the opulence and secular trappings of Umayyad court culture began to disaffect many Muslims, who yearned for a return to a more pietistic traditional lifestyle and model of rulership. When Caliph Hisham died in 743 the Kharijites, Alids, and other factions rebelled. The Abbasids, a branch of the prophet Muhammad’s family descended from his uncle, Abbas, seized power in a bloody coup, murdering all the members of the Umayyad family. One Umayyad prince managed to escape the slaughter and fled to Spain.
西班牙的倭马亚王朝(755-1031)
在倭马亚哈里发时期，随着伊斯兰统治的扩张，新征服的领土由倭马亚王子（埃米尔，Emir 有时音译为amir、 amier 或 ameer）在当地进行管理，其统治被称为酋长国，受大马士革哈里发管辖。这就是倭马亚王朝统治西班牙的情况，直到阿拔斯家族上台。当幸存的倭马亚王子阿卜杜拉赫曼一世（756-788）到达西班牙时，他宣布酋长国独立于阿拔斯王朝，并在科尔多瓦建都。为了巩固在埃及和马格里布新成立的法蒂玛哈里发（910-1171）的地位，阿卜杜拉赫曼三世（912-961年）于929年宣布自己为倭马亚王朝的安达鲁斯（穆斯林在中世纪对伊比利亚半岛的称呼）哈里发。
As the expansion of Islamic rule progressed during the Umayyad caliphate, newly conquered territories were governed locally by Umayyad princes (amirs), whose rulership, called an emirate, was subject to the caliph at Damascus. This was the situation in which the Umayyads ruled Spain until the Abbasids rose to power. When the surviving Umayyad prince Abd al-Rahman I (r. 756–788) arrived in Spain, he declared the emirate independent of the Abbasids and established its capital at Córdoba. In a bid to strengthen his position vis-à-vis the newly formed Fatimid caliphate established in Egypt and the Maghrib (910–1171), Abd alRahman III (r. 912–961) declared the Umayyad caliphate of al-Andalus in 929.
倭马亚王朝将宫廷文化提升到了新的高度，在对世俗和宗教科学以及艺术的资助方面，模仿了其竞争对手阿拨斯王朝的巴格达，因此，在哈里发阿卜杜拉赫曼三世时代，世人称赞科尔多瓦是“世界的装饰品”。阿卜杜拉赫曼三世的继任者哈克汗二世（Al-Hakam II ，961-976年）在科尔多瓦建造了宏伟的图书馆，据说收藏了超过40万册阿拉伯-伊斯兰宗教、文学和世俗科学文献以及海量希腊科学文献，并组织了一个由穆斯林、犹太和基督教学者组成的联合委员会，将希腊文献翻译成阿拉伯语。哲学家伊本·鲁世德（1198年）等名人都曾在这个图书馆的大厅里留下足迹。科尔多瓦酋长国非常富有，他们从整个非洲、地中海、欧洲、中东和亚洲的利润丰厚的贸易中获取利润。安达卢西亚的蚕丝、纸张、奢侈品和农产品让基督教西班牙和西欧求知若渴。
Contemporaries of Caliph Abd al-Rahman III lauded Córdoba as the “ornament of the world,” for the Umayyads had raised the culture of the court to new heights of splendor, imitating its rival, Abbasid Baghdad, in the patronage of the secular and religious sciences and the arts. Abd al-Rahman III’s successor, alHakam II (961–976), built the magnificent library at Córdoba, housing reputedly over 400,000 volumes containing Arabo-Islamic religious, literary, and secular scientific texts as well as all the Greek sciences, and organized a joint committee of polyglot Muslim, Jewish, and Christian scholars to translate Greek texts into Arabic. The halls of this library would later be graced by luminaries such as the philosopher Ibn Rushd (d. 1198). The Emirate of Córdoba was immensely wealthy, drawing income from lucrative trade throughout Africa, the Mediterranean, Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Andalusian manufacturers of silk, paper, luxury items, and agricultural products were the envy of Christian Spain and western Europe.
科尔多瓦倭马亚王朝对卡斯蒂利亚、莱昂、纳瓦拉等基督教王国和加洛林王朝的西班牙边疆区进行了战争。科尔多瓦强大的哈吉卜（大宰相，阿拉伯语：الحاوب）阿布·埃米尔·曼苏尔，通常以他的尊称al-Mansur bi amri Allah（“因真主的恩典而胜利的人”）（卒于1002年）而闻名，他在985年摧毁了圣地亚哥-德孔波斯特拉，只放过了圣詹姆斯的神殿，穆斯林把它比作麦加的克尔白(Kaaba，又称恺阿白、天堂礼拜寺、卡巴天房、天房)，并从那里向巴塞罗那进军，并在997年摧毁了该城市。曼苏尔的战绩与基督教西班牙的罗德里戈·迪亚兹·德·维瓦尔（又称熙德，Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar）的战绩并无不同。它们表明了如果统治者处于弱势地位，那么其权力会被一个野心勃勃的强人所篡夺。曼苏尔甚至建造了一座名为al-Zahra的宫殿，即“辉煌的”，作为对合法倭马亚哈里发的侮辱。1010年，倭马亚哈里发哈基姆·比阿穆尔·阿拉和曼苏尔的继承人之间爆发了内战（fitna，或fitnah，阿拉伯语：وتن 、فتن٩，是一个阿拉伯语单词，具有广泛的审判、苦难或痛苦的含义。尽管它是一个具有重要历史意义的词，但它在现代阿拉伯语中也被广泛使用，但没有潜在的历史内涵），导致1031年倭马亚哈里发（科尔多瓦哈里发国）的垮台，并被分割成各种泰法（taifa，“党派”或“派系”，专指11世纪早期后倭马亚王朝解体后出现于伊比利亚半岛上的穆斯林小王国）王国。
The Córdoban Umayyads conducted war against the Christian kingdoms of Castile, León, Navarre, and the Carolingian Spanish March. The powerful hajib (grand vizier) of Córdoba, Abu Amir ibn Abi Amir, more commonly known by his honorific title al-Mansur bi amri Allah (“the victorious by the grace of God”) (d. 1002), devastated Santiago de Compostela in 985, sparing only the shrine of Saint James, which Muslims compared to the Kaaba at Mecca, and from there marched onward to Barcelona, destroying that city in 997. Al-Mansur’s exploits were not unlike those of El Cid (Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar) of Christian Spain: They were an indication of the weakened position of the ruler, whose power was usurped by an ambitious strongman. Al-Mansur went so far as to build a palace called al-Zahra, “the resplendent,” as an affront to the legitimate Umayyad caliphs. In 1010 civil war (fitna) broke out between the successors of the Umayyad caliph al-Hakim and al-Mansur, leading to the fall of the Umayyad caliphate in 1031 and its partition into various taifa (“party” or “faction”) kingdoms.
从这时起，安达鲁斯的历史就与基督教西班牙的分裂王国的历史交织在一起。穆斯林和基督教国王在伊比利亚半岛各王国之间结成联盟，对抗共同的基督教或穆斯林敌人，结果是穆斯林无法明确地恢复早期倭马亚王朝时期享有的强大而统一的哈里发地位。穆拉比特王朝（Almoravids）是一个由正统的、虔诚的改革派穆斯林组成的柏柏尔王朝，大约于1040年在马格里布崛起，1086年将其统治扩展到安达卢西亚，但他们无法收复在基督教征服托莱多（西班牙）之后丧失给伊斯兰教的所有西班牙领土。他们虔诚的救世主继任者柏柏尔人穆瓦希德（阿拉伯语：al-Muwaḥḥidūn，“认主独一者”，1147-1212）也是如此，由于卡斯蒂利亚和葡萄牙的征服，穆拉比特王朝对半岛的控制进一步削弱。基督教王国之间的内部战争使伊比利亚半岛的最终“统一”（1492年1月格拉纳达投降后，整个伊比利亚半岛被基督教统治者控制）延长到1492年。
The history of the kingdom of al-Andalus from this point onward is intermingled with that of the fractious kingdoms of Christian Spain. Muslim and Christian kings forged alliances with each other against a common Christian or Muslim enemy among the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula, resulting in the inability of the Muslims to revive definitively the strong and united caliphate enjoyed under the early Umayyads. The Almoravids, a Berber dynasty of orthodox, puritanical, and reformist Muslims who rose to power in the Maghrib circa 1040, extended their rule into al-Andalus in 1086, but they were unable to recover all the Spanish territories lost to Islam in the aftermath of the Christian conquests of Toledo. The same may be said of their pious, messianic successors, the Berber Almohads (1147–1212), whose control over the peninsula had been further reduced by Castilian and Portuguese conquests. Internal wars among the Christian kingdoms protracted the final “Reconquest” of the Iberian Peninsula until 1492.
阿拔斯王朝
阿布·阿拔斯·阿卜杜拉·萨法赫·本·穆罕默德（卒于754年）策划了推翻倭马亚王朝的血腥叛乱。(阿布·阿拔斯属于哈希姆部落（Banu Hashim）部族，他对哈里发的要求是基于他是先知的叔叔阿拔斯的后裔，即阿拔斯王朝的祖先。阿拔斯王朝以库法为中心，在一面骄傲的黑色旗帜指引下，从胡拉山向西移动，并在749年至750年间的各种战斗中击败了倭马亚王朝，并杀死了倭马亚王朝的最后一位哈里发马尔万二世（744-750年）。强大的新哈里发在一次令人震惊的政治事件中登上历史舞台。
Abu l-Abbas ibn Abdallah al-Saffah (d. 754) engineered the bloody rebellion that ousted the Umayyads. (The name al-Saffah is an epithet that means “the blood shedder.”) Abu lAbbas, who belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, based his claim to the caliphate on his descent from the Prophet’s uncle, Abbas, the progenitor of the Abbasids. The Abbasids created an organization centered at Kufa and under a proud black banner moved westward from Khurasan and defeated the Umayyads in various battles between 749 and 750, killing the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II (r. 744–750). The powerful new caliph was proclaimed in a stunningly theatrical political event.
为了巩固新统治，并与现已失效的倭马亚王朝拉开距离，阿拔斯王朝哈里发阿布·加法尔·阿卜杜拉·曼苏尔·本·穆罕默德（R. 754-775）在762年建立了巴格达市（伊拉克），并将其作为阿拔斯王朝的首都。巴格达的优势在于离阿拔斯王朝的波斯盟友更近。尽管阿拔斯哈里发拥有阿拉伯哈希姆部族的血统，但他们吸引了许多波斯人和其他非阿拉伯人加入其宫廷和政府，这让他们的阿拉伯支持者的守旧派感到惊愕，他们认为应该永远优先考虑与先知家族有关的阿拉伯部落。他们还宣称自己是逊尼派伊斯兰教的坚定捍卫者，这让他们的什叶派盟友感到失望。786年，逊尼派阿拔斯王朝和什叶派在麦加进行了一场可怕的战斗。后者输了，大部分人逃到了北非，并在那里建立了独立的王国。为了加强军队的力量，阿拔斯王朝开始招募土耳其士兵，他们在战斗中的凶猛和效率具有传奇性。这三个因素——波斯人在政府中的突出地位、与什叶派的冲突以及土耳其士兵在军队中的主导地位，将在短期甚至长期内对阿拔斯王朝产生巨大的影响。
To consolidate their new rule and distance themselves from the now defunct Umayyads, the Abbasid caliph Abu Jafar Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Mansur (r. 754–775) founded the city of Baghdad, Iraq, in 762 and made it the Abbasid capital. Baghdad had the advantage of being closer to the Abbasids’ Persian allies. Despite their Arab Hashimite pedigree, the Abbasid caliphs attracted many Persians and other non-Arabs into their court and government to the consternation of the old guard of their Arab supporters, who believed preference should always be given to the Arab tribes associated with the family of the Prophet. They also disappointed their Shiite allies by declaring themselves to be staunch defenders of Sunni Islam. A terrible battle was fought in Mecca in 786 between the now Sunni Abbasids and the Shiites. The latter lost, and most fled to North Africa, where they would establish independent kingdoms. In an effort to shore up the ranks of the army, the Abbasids began to recruit Turkish soldiers, whose ferocity and effectiveness in battle were legendary. These three factors—Persian prominence in government, the fallout with the Shiites, and the dominance of Turkish soldiers over the army—would have tremendous consequences for the Abbasids in the long and short terms.
拜占庭军队抓住786年内战的机会，重新攻击穆斯林，试图收复他们在叙利亚和安纳托利亚失去的一些省份。在拜占庭-阿拔斯的战争中，强大的波斯家族巴尔马克（Barmakids）在曼苏尔政府的队伍中位极人臣，但他们反叛了曼苏尔，并试图于786至809年间在呼罗珊建立一个独立王国。虽然后来巴尔马克家族被打败了，但其他波斯家族，如布维西家族（白益王朝，945-1055）和加兹尼家族（962-1187）对阿拔斯王朝的波斯、伊拉克和阿富汗省份实行了实际统治。
Byzantine armies seized upon the opportunity that the civil war of 786 had presented to renew their attacks upon the Muslims in an effort to recover some of their lost provinces in Syria and Anatolia. In the midst of the Byzantine-Abbasid wars, the Barmakids, a powerful Persian family who swelled the ranks of alMansur’s government, rebelled against him and attempted to establish an independent kingdom in Khorasan between 786 and 809. Although the Barmakids were defeated, other Persian dynasties such as the Buyids (945–1055) and the Ghaznavids (962–1187) exercised de facto rule over the Abbasid Persian, Iraqi, and Afghan provinces.
阿拔斯王朝的宗教和管理
阿拔斯王朝通过公开呼吁宗教象征主义和培养乌里玛的支持使其统治合法化。他们声称哈里发是基于他们与先知家族的关系而获得的神圣授权。他们不遗余力地表明，阿拔斯的领导层完全遵循了《古兰经》和圣行(Sunnah)的规定。为此，他们寻求乌里玛的支持，因为乌里玛作为先知传统的守护者，可以为哈里发的主张提供担保。伊斯兰法官（qadi，卡迪是伊斯兰教法法庭裁判官或法官的名称）被赋予了突出的地位，他独立于总督工作，并根据新兴的伊斯兰法律体系进行裁决。
The Abbasids legitimated their rule by appealing overtly to religious symbolism and cultivating the support of the ulema. They claimed the caliphate as a divine mandate based upon their ties to the family of the Prophet. They went out of their way to demonstrate that their leadership followed the prescriptions of the Quran and the Sunna to the letter. To this end, they sought the support of the ulema, who, as the guardians of the prophetic tradition, could vouchsafe the caliphal claims. Prominence was accorded to the office of the Islamic judge (qadi), who, working independently of the governor, adjudicated according to the emerging system of Islamic law.
在行政方面，阿拔斯王朝也进行了创新。政府官僚机构被划分为若干底万（diwans，伊斯兰国家的高级政府部门或其首席官员），负责监督国库、军队和总理府。阿拔斯王朝的统治者试图通过建立一个广泛的间谍网络来确保没有官员会滥用权力或挑战哈里发，这在《一千零一夜》中得到了生动的描述。阿拔斯王朝还在巴格达南部建造了一座驻军城市萨迈拉，将军队驻扎在那里，以此来使士兵远离平民百姓。
Administratively, the Abbasids also made innovations. Government bureaucracy was divided into a number of offices (diwans) that oversaw the treasury, army, and chancellery. The Abbasid rulers sought to ensure that no officer would abuse his power or challenge the caliph by establishing an extensive network of spies, as is so vividly depicted in the Thousand and One Nights. The Abbasids also built a garrison city of Samarra, south of Baghdad, to station the army there as a means of keeping the soldiers away from the civilian population.
哈伦·拉希德的巴格达：一场文化革命
历史学家塔巴里（卒于923年）保留了曼苏尔（伊斯兰教第二十代哈里发，阿拔斯帝国第二代哈里发）建立巴格达这一段轶事。他在Qasr al-Salam附近过夜时做了一个梦，据说他受到启发，说“这是我要建造的地方，东西可以通过幼发拉底河、底格里斯河和运河网到达这里。只有这样的地方才能支持军队和普通民众…以真主的名义，赞美他，这片土地是神的。他让他所满意的仆人来继承它。凡敬畏他的人，都获得了好结果…建造吧，真主保佑你！” (Hourani 1991, 33)。巴格达位于底格里斯河和幼发拉底河的交汇处，建成一个精致的圆形城堡，被世人称为Medinat alSalam（和平之城）。曼苏尔认为在这块肥沃的土地上建造一座富饶的城市是正确的。这片土地不仅物产丰富，而且有许多来自不同国家和拥有不同信仰的商人、艺术家和学者。
The historian al-Tabari (d. 923) preserves an anecdote of how al-Mansur founded Baghdad. Inspired by a dream he had while staying overnight near Qasr al-Salam, he is said to have stated: “This is the place which I shall build. Things can arrive here by way of the Euphrates, Tigris, and a network of canals. Only a place like this will support the army and the general populace. . . . In the name of God, and praise to him: The earth is God’s. He causes to inherit of it whom he wills among his servants. The results come to them that fear Him. . . . Build, and God bless you!” (Hourani 1991, 33). Baghdad, located at a junction between the Tigris and Euphrates, was built as an exquisite round citadel and was dubbed Medinat alSalam (The City of Peace). Mansur was correct in assuming a rich city could be built on that fertile site. Not only did the land produce abundantly, but so did merchants, artists, and scholars from many nations and creeds.
阿拔斯王朝统治期间，拜占庭、波斯、古印度和古中国是许多古代文明和民族的故乡，在农业、灌溉、工业、物理学、数学、天文学、医学、植物学、哲学和文学领域具有先进的科学与文化。阿拔斯王朝明智地将这些民族的部分人才纳入他们的宫廷、政府和行政管理中。他们的知识成为伊斯兰文化和文明的一部分，而他们也在文化上被伊斯兰化和阿拉伯化。在曼苏尔统治时期，学者们开始将这些外国文本的作品翻译成阿拉伯语，但当哈伦·拉希德和他的继承人阿布·阿拔斯·阿卜杜拉·马蒙·本·哈伦（813-833年）在巴格达建立Bayt al-Hikma（智慧之家）时，这一过程迈出了决定性的一步。学者们翻译了一些重要的作品。仅举两例：Siddanta（《悉檀》，又称《四悉檀教学法》），一部印度的数学和天文学文本，引入了印度的数字符号，包括零的概念；以及托勒密的《天文学大成》（又译《至大论》），一部关于天文学和数学的百科全书式汇编。实际上，希腊哲学思想、形而上学、医学和其他知识领域的大部分文献都被翻译成了阿拉伯语，并在整个伊斯兰世界传播，从12世纪开始，这些文本通过西班牙和西西里的翻译学校传入欧洲。波斯人和印度人也留下了一些文学作品，如《卡利拉和迪姆纳》（Kalila wa Dimna）和《天方夜谭》（Hazar Afsana），后者是《一千零一夜》的前身，后来成为欧洲西方的流行文学作品。
The Byzantine, Persian, Indian, and Chinese territories under Abbasid rule were the homeland of peoples with ancient civilizations scientifically and culturally advanced in the fields of agriculture, irrigation, industry, physics, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, botany, philosophy, and literature. The Abbasids wisely incorporated these peoples in their court, government, and administration. Their knowledge became part of Islamic culture and civilization, and they in turn were Islamized and Arabized culturally. Scholars began to translate the works of these foreign texts into Arabic during the reign of al-Mansur, but this process took a decisive step forward when Harun al-Rashid and his successor, Abu Jafar al-Mamun ibn Harun (r. 813–833), founded the Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom) in Baghdad. Seminal works were translated. To name just two: the Siddanta, an Indian mathematical and astronomical text that introduced Indian number symbols, including the concept of zero, and Ptolemy’s Almagest, an encyclopedic compendium of astronomy and mathematics. Practically the entire legacy of Greek philosophical thought, metaphysics, medicine, and other realms of knowledge was translated into Arabic and disseminated throughout the Islamic world, from there to enter Europe via the translation schools of Spain and Sicily from the 12th century onward. The Persians and Indians also bequeathed a legacy of literature, such as the Kalila wa Dimna (Kalila and Dimna) and the Hazar Afsana (Thousand stories), the latter being the precursor of The Thousand and One Nights, which later became favorites in the European West.
伊斯兰法律和阿拉伯文学蓬勃发展
阿拔斯王朝不仅发扬了外国的智慧和艺术。在他们的统治下，伊斯兰科学蓬勃发展，并促使了伊斯兰法律的编纂。阿拔斯王朝开创了一个美丽而复杂的阿拉伯语文学传统，非阿拉伯穆斯林以及犹太人和基督徒也受此影响竞相模仿。阿拔斯王朝为了获得宗教合法性，邀请了阿拉伯希贾兹地区（汉志，Hijaz）最优秀的学者来教授古兰经注释和背诵、阿拉伯语言学、圣训（先知的传统和关于先知的传说）和圣行等伊斯兰科学。伊斯兰法学（fiqh）在阿拔斯王朝时期逐渐成型，法律学者艾阿布·哈尼法（767年）、麦地那的马里克·阿本·阿纳斯（795年）、巴勒斯坦的穆罕默德·本·伊德里斯·沙斐仪（820年）和巴格达的艾哈迈德·伊本·罕百勒（855年）开始对指导整个穆斯林社区的伊斯兰法律的产生依据进行理论研究和辩论。他们被认为是逊尼派四大法律学派（madhhabs，麦兹海布）的创始人，即哈乃斐派、马立克派、沙斐仪派、罕百里，这些学派在10至11世纪得到巩固。来自整个伊斯兰世界的法学生都聚集在伊拉克，学习不同的法学理论。
The Abbasids did not only cultivate foreign wisdom and arts. Under their rule Islamic sciences—which generated the codification of Islamic law—flourished, and a beautiful and sophisticated Arabic literary tradition that would be imitated by non-Arab Muslims as well as Jews and Christians began. True to their desire to gain religious legitimacy, the Abbasids invited the best scholars from the Arabian Hijaz to teach the Islamic sciences of quranic exegesis and recitation, Arabic philology, Hadith (the traditions of and about the Prophet), and the Sunna. The science of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) took shape during the Abbasid period as the legal scholars Abu Hanifa al-Nuaman (d. 767), Malik ibn Anas in Medina (d. 795), Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafii (d. 820) in Palestine, and Ahmad ibn Hanbal al-Shaybani in Baghdad (d. 855) began to theorize and debate about the bases for deriving Islamic laws that would guide the entire Muslim community. They would be considered the founders of the four major Sunni schools of law (madhhabs), Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii, and Hanbali, which would be consolidated by the 10th to 11th centuries. Students from all over the Islamic world converged upon Iraq to study the different schools of law.
在阿拔斯时代，所有类型的阿拉伯文学都很繁荣。法庭秘书（katib）创造了华丽的外交书信。曼苏尔委托传统主义者伊本·易斯哈格（Muhammad b. Ishaq）撰写先知生平的历史，产生了一种新的历史写作体裁，他的继任者撰写了整个伊斯兰世界或特定城市或朝代的专门历史。它还促使穆斯林名人传记辞典的出现，这些辞典根据名人的职业或原籍地进行分类。宫廷文化也促使了对诗人和音乐家的赞助，他们为在阿拔斯王朝的宫廷中占有一席之地而勾心斗角。
All genres of Arabic letters flourished in the Abbasid era. Court secretaries (katib) cultivated florid diplomatic epistles. Al-Mansur’s commissioning of the traditionalist Muhammad b. Ishaq to write a history of the Prophet’s life generated a new genre of historical writing as his successors wrote specialized histories of the entire Islamic world or of particular cities or dynasties. It also inspired the emergence of biographical dictionaries of Muslim notables categorized according to profession or place of origin. Last but not least, courtly culture stimulated the patronage of poets and musicians who vied with each other for a place in the Abbasid court.
学院的崛起：宗教学校
传统上，伊斯兰教的学习是在清真寺中专门保留的长廊中进行的。10世纪时，出现了一种新的学术机构，称为“宗教学校”（“学习的地方”）。第一所宗教学校据说是由阿拔斯王朝巴格达的塞尔柱突厥宰相尼札姆·穆勒克（1092年）创建的，被称为Nezamiyeh宗教学校。尼札姆·穆勒克希望建立一个逊尼派伊斯兰学习堡垒，以对抗法蒂玛什叶派传教士日益增长的影响力，也就是所谓的达瓦。Nezamiyeh的学生学习逊尼派伊斯兰法的四个流派理念，以及《古兰经》、《圣训》和阿拉伯语语言学。宗教学校在纳斯里德王朝时期传播至从印度到格拉纳达的许多国家和地区。
Traditionally Islamic learning took place in the mosque in special galleries reserved for this purpose. The 10th century witnessed the emergence of a new academic institution called the madrasa (“the place where one studies”). The first madrasa was reputedly founded by a Seljuk Turkish vizier of Abbasid Baghdad, Nizam alMulk (d. 1092) and was called the Nizamiyya Madrasa. Nizam al-Mulk wanted to create a bastion of Sunni Islamic learning that would counter the increasing advances of Fatimid Shiite missionary propaganda, called dawa. Students at the Nizamiyya studied all four schools of Sunni Islamic law, as well as the Quran, the Hadith, and Arabic philology. The institution spread to numerous other countries from India to Granada under the Nasrid dynasty
阿拔斯王朝的辉煌宫廷
917年，一支拜占庭使团拜访了哈里发穆克塔迪尔一世（908-932年），拜占庭人被宫廷的壮观和辉煌所吸引。这些拜占庭大使已经习惯了伟大的艺术和浮夸的财富，但当他们参观宏伟的宫殿：大厅、庭院、公园、近卫、太监、侍从、库房和披着孔雀丝锦缎的大象时，拜占庭人对哈里发对客人的亲切态度毫无心里准备。
A Byzantine embassy arrived to see Caliph alMuqtadir (r. 908–932) in 917 and was dazzled by the spectacles and splendors of his court. These Byzantine ambassadors already were accustomed to great art and ostentatious wealth but were unprepared for the caliph’s graciousness to his guests as they toured the magnificent palace: its halls, courts, parks, soldiers, eunuchs, pages, treasuries, and elephants caparisoned in peacock silk brocade.
在一个叫 “树室”的房间里，他们看到一棵树矗立在一个装满清水的圆形大水池中。这棵树有18段树枝，主要是银制的，有些是金制的。每段树枝上都有许多小树枝，树枝上有金银鸟，它们鸣叫着。树枝上有不同颜色的树叶。树叶伴随着风的吹拂和鸟儿的歌唱而摇曳。
In one chamber called the Room of the Tree they saw a tree standing in the midst of a great circular tank filled with clear water. The tree had 18 branches mainly made of silver with some crafted of gold. Every branch had numerous twigs on which sat gold and silver birds that piped and sang. On the branches of the trees were leaves of different colors. The leaves of the tree moved as the wind blew and the birds sang.
哈里发本人穿着绣有黄金的华丽衣服。他坐在一个乌木宝座上，左右两边都是不同颜色的珍贵宝石。巴格达城被结满果实的棕榈树装饰得格外繁茂。
The caliph himself wore opulent clothing embroidered in gold. He sat on an ebony throne surrounded to the right and left by precious gems of different colors. His city of Baghdad was lusciously decorated with fruit-bearing palm trees.
《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）
By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones
未完待续！
