THE ATHENS OF SOCRATES 1
The Athenian Empire
雅典帝国
The most glorious days of Ancient Greece fell in the fifth-century bc, during fifty years of peace between two periods of warfare. The century began with wars between Greece and Persia, and ended with a war between the city states of Greece itself.In the middle period flowered the great civilization of the city of Athens.
古希腊最辉煌的时期是在公元前五世纪，在两个战争时期之间的50年和平时期。这个世纪以希腊和波斯之间的战争开始，以希腊本身的城邦之间的战争结束。在中间时期，雅典城的伟大文明开花结果。
Ionia, where the earliest philosophers had flourished, had been under Persian rule since the mid-sixth century. In 499 the Ionian Greeks rose in revolt against the Persian king, Darius.
最早的哲学家们曾在此繁衍生息的爱奥尼亚，自六世纪中叶以来一直处于波斯人的统治之下。499年，爱奥尼亚希腊人起义，反对波斯国王大流士。
After crushing the rising, Darius invaded Greece to punish those who had assisted the rebels from the mainland. A mainly Athenian force defeated the invading army at Marathon in 490.
在粉碎了这次起义后，大流士入侵希腊，以惩罚那些从大陆上协助叛军的人。490年，一支以雅典人为主的部队在马拉松击败了入侵的军队。
Darius’ son Xerxes launched a more massive expedition in 484, defeated a gallant band of Spartans at Thermopylae, and forced the Athenians to evacuate their city. But his fleet was defeated by a united Greek navy near the offshore island of Salamis, and a Greek land victory at Platea in 479 put an end to the invasion.
大流士的儿子薛西斯在484年发动了一次更大规模的远征，在瑟莫比莱击败了一支英勇的斯巴达人，并迫使雅典人撤离他们的城市。但他的舰队在近海的萨拉米斯岛附近被一支联合的希腊海军击败，479年希腊在普拉提亚的陆地胜利结束了入侵
After the invasions, Athens assumed the leadership of the Greek allies. It was the Athenians who liberated the Ionian Greeks, and it was Athens, supported by contributions from other cities, which controlled the navy that kept the freedom of the Aegean and Ionian seas. What began as a federation grew into an Athenian Empire.
入侵之后，雅典承担了希腊盟友的领导权。是雅典人解放了爱奥尼亚希腊人，是雅典在其他城市的支持下，控制了保持爱琴海和爱奥尼亚海域自由的海军。一开始是一个联邦，后来发展成为一个雅典帝国。
Internally, Athens was a democracy, the first authenticated example of such a polity. ‘Democracy’ is the Greek word for the rule of the people, and Athenian democracy was a very thoroughgoing form of that rule.
就内部而言，雅典是一个民主国家，是这种政体的第一个被证实的例子。民主 "在希腊语中是指人民的统治，而雅典民主是这种统治的一种非常彻底的形式。
Athens was not like a modern democracy, in which the citizens elect representatives to form a government. Rather, each citizen had the right personally to take part in government by attending a general assembly, where he could listen to speeches by political leaders and then cast his vote.
雅典并不像现代民主制度那样，由公民选举代表组成政府。相反，每个公民都有权通过参加大会亲自参与政府，在大会上他可以听取政治领导人的演讲，然后投出自己的一票。
To see what this would mean in modern terms, imagine that members of the cabinet and shadow cabinet speak on television for two hours, after which a motion is put and a decision taken on the basis of votes recorded by each viewer pressing either a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ button on the television set.
为了了解这在现代术语中的含义，想象一下内阁和影子内阁成员在电视上发言两个小时，然后提出一项动议，并根据每个观众在电视机上按下 "是 "或 "否 "按钮所记录的投票作出决定。
To make the parallel precise, one would have to add that only male citizens over 20 are allowed to press the button; and no women or children, or slaves or foreigners.
为了使打的比方更加精确，我们必须补充一点，即只有20岁以上的男性公民才允许按下按钮；而没有妇女或儿童，或奴隶或外国人。
The judiciary and the legislature in Athens were drawn by lot from members of the assembly over thirty; laws were passed by a panel of 1,000 chosen for one day only, and major trials were conducted before a jury of 501. Even the magistrates – the executives charged with carrying out the decisions of government, whether judicial, financial, or military – were largely chosen by lot; only about one hundred were elected officers.
雅典的司法和立法机构是从三十岁以上的议会成员中抽签选出的；法律是由一千名只选一天的委员通过的，重大案件是在五百零一名陪审团面前进行的。甚至连执政官——负责执行政府的决定，无论是司法的、财政的还是军事的——也大多是抽签选出的；只有大约一百名是选举出来的官员。
Never before or since have the ordinary people of a state taken so full a part in its government. It is important to remember this when reading what Greek philosophers have to say about the merits and demerits of democratic institutions.
从来没有哪个国家的普通人民在其政府中扮演过如此重要的角色。在阅读希腊哲学家对民主制度的优缺点所说的话时，记住这一点很重要。
Athenians dated their constitution to the reforms of Cleisthenes in 508 bc, and that year is often taken to be the birthdate of democracy.
雅典人把他们的宪法追溯到公元前508年克里斯提尼斯的改革，那一年通常被认为是民主的诞生之年。
Athenian democracy was not incompatible with aristocratic leadership, and during its period of empire Athens, by popular choice, was governed by Pericles, the great-nephew of Cleisthenes. He instituted an ambitious programme to rebuild the city’s temples which had been destroyed by Xerxes. To this day, visitors travel across the world to see the ruins of the buildings he erected on the Acropolis, the city’s citadel. The sculptures with which these temples were decorated are among the most treasured possessions of the museums in which they are now scattered. The Parthenon, the temple of the virgin goddess Athena, was a thank-offering for the victories of the Persian wars. The Elgin marbles in the British Museum, brought from the temple ruins by Lord Elgin in 1803, represent a great Athenian festival, the Panathenaea, just such a one as Parmenides and Zeno saw in the years when the building works were beginning.
雅典民主与贵族领导并不矛盾，在其帝国时期，雅典由人民选择由克里斯提尼斯的侄孙裴里克勒斯统治。他制定了一个雄心勃勃的计划，重建被泽克西斯摧毁的城市神庙。直到今天，游客还从世界各地前来参观他在雅典卫城上建造的建筑遗址。这些神庙上装饰着的雕塑是现在散落在各个博物馆中最珍贵的财富之一。帕特农神庙，处女女神雅典娜的神庙，是为了感谢波斯战争的胜利而建造的。1803年，埃尔金勋爵从神庙遗址上带走了埃尔金大理石，现藏于大英博物馆，它们代表了一个伟大的雅典节日，潘雅忒奈亚节，就是像巴门尼德和芝诺在建筑工程开始时所看到的那样。
When Pericles’ programme was complete, Athens was unrivalled anywhere in the world for architecture and sculpture.
当裴里克勒斯的计划完成时，雅典在建筑和雕塑方面无与伦比，举世无双。
Athens held the primacy too in drama and literature. Aeschylus, who had fought in the Persian wars, was the first great writer of tragedy: he brought onto the stage the heroes and heroines of Homeric epic, and his re-enactment of the homecoming and murder of Agamemnon can still fascinate and horrify. Aeschylus also represented the more recent catastrophes which had afflicted King Xerxes.
雅典在戏剧和文学方面也占据了首要地位。埃斯库罗斯，曾参加过波斯战争，是第一位伟大的悲剧作家：他把荷马史诗中的英雄和女主人公带上了舞台，他对阿伽门农的归来和谋杀的再现仍然能够引人入胜和惊悚。埃斯库罗斯还描绘了近期困扰泽克西斯国王的灾难。
Younger dramatists, the pious conservative Sophocles and the more radical and sceptical Euripides, set the classical pattern of tragic drama. Sophocles’ plays about King Oedipus, killer of his father and husband of his mother, and Euripides’ portrayal of the child-murderer Medea, not only figure in the twentieth-century repertoire but strike disturbing chords in the twentieth-century psyche. The serious writing of history, also, began in this century, with Herodotus’ chronicles of the Persian Wars written in the early years of the century, and Thucydides’ narrative of the war between the Greeks as it came to an end.
年轻的戏剧家，虔诚保守的索福克勒斯和更激进怀疑的欧里庇得斯，确立了悲剧戏剧的古典模式。索福克勒斯关于国王俄狄浦斯，杀死他父亲并娶他母亲为妻的戏剧，以及欧里庇得斯对杀儿魔女美狄亚的刻画，不仅出现在二十世纪的剧目中，而且在二十世纪的心理中引起了令人不安的共鸣。严肃的历史写作也始于这个世纪，赫罗多德在本世纪初年写下了波斯战争的编年史，修昔底德则讲述了希腊人之间的战争如何结束。
Anaxagoras
阿那克萨戈拉
Philosophy, too, came to Athens in the age of Pericles. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (near Izmir) was born about 500 bc and was thus about forty years older than Democritus. He came to Athens after the end of the Persian wars, and became a friend and associate of Pericles. He wrote a book on natural philosophy in the style of his Ionian predecessors, acknowledging a particular debt to Anaximenes; it was the first such treatise, we are told, to contain diagrams.
哲学也在裴里克勒斯时代来到了雅典。克拉佐梅尼的阿那克萨戈拉（靠近伊兹密尔）大约出生于公元前500年，因此比德谟克利特大约大四十岁。他在波斯战争结束后来到雅典，成为裴里克勒斯的朋友和同事。他用他的爱奥尼亚前辈的风格写了一本自然哲学的书，承认他特别欠阿那克西美尼一个人情；据我们所知，这是第一部包含图表的论文。
Anaxagoras’ account of the origin of the world is strikingly similar to a model which is popular today. At the beginning, he said, ‘all things were together’, in a unit infinitely complex and infinitely small which lacked all perceptible qualities. This primeval pebble began to rotate, expanding as it did so, and throwing off air and ether, and eventually the stars and the sun and the moon. In the course of the rotation, what is dense separated off from what is rarefied, and so did the hot from the cold, the bright from the dark, and the dry from the wet. Thus the articulated substances of our world were formed, with the dense and the wet and the cold and the dark congregating where our earth now is, and the rare and the hot and the dry and the bright moving to the outermost parts of the ether.
阿那克萨戈拉对世界起源的描述与今天流行的一个模型惊人地相似。一开始，他说，“万物都在一起”，在一个无限复杂、无限小、缺乏所有可感知品质的单位中。这个原始的砾石开始旋转，随着它的旋转而扩张，抛出空气和以太，最终形成了星星和太阳和月亮。在旋转过程中，密集的东西与稀薄的东西分离开来，热的与冷的、明亮的与黑暗的、干燥的与湿润的也是如此。于是我们世界上的有机物质就形成了，密集的、湿润的、寒冷的、黑暗的聚集在我们现在所在的地球上，稀薄的、热的、干燥的、明亮的则移动到以太最外层。
In a manner, however, Anaxagoras maintained, ‘as things were in the beginning, so now they are all together’: that is, in every single thing there is a portion of everything else; there is a little whiteness in what is black, and something lightweight in whatever is heavy. This was clearest in the case of semen, which must contain hair and nails and muscles and bones and ever so much else. The expansion of the universe, according to Anaxagoras, has continued until the present, and will continue in the future, and perhaps it is even now generating inhabited worlds other than our own.
然而，在某种意义上，阿那克萨戈拉坚持说，“万物如初，如今仍然如此”：也就是说，在每一件事物中都有其他事物的一部分；在黑色的东西中有一点白色，在重的东西中有一些轻的东西。这在精液的情况下最清楚，它必须包含头发和指甲和肌肉和骨头和其他很多东西。根据阿那克萨哥拉斯的说法，宇宙的扩张一直持续到现在，将来也会继续，也许它甚至现在就在产生除了我们自己之外的有人居住的世界。
The motion which generates the development of the universe is set in train by Mind. Mind is something entirely different from the matter over whose history it presides. It is infinite and separate, and has no part in the general commingling of elements; if it did, it would get drawn into the evolutionary process and could not control it.
产生宇宙发展的运动是由心灵引发的。心灵是与它主宰的物质完全不同的东西。它是无限的和分离的，它不参与元素的一般混合；如果它参与了，它就会被卷入进化过程，而不能控制它。
In the 430s, when the popularity of Pericles began to wane, his protégé Anaxagoras was targeted for attack. He had said that the sun was a fiery lump, somewhat larger than the Peloponnesus. This was taken as inconsistent with worship of the sun as a god, and was made the basis of a charge of impiety. He fled to Lampsacus on the Hellespont and lived there in honourable exile until his death in 428.
在公元前430年代，当裴里克勒斯的声望开始衰落时，他的门徒阿那克萨戈拉成为了攻击的目标。他曾说过太阳是一个火球，比伯罗奔尼撒半岛稍大一些。这被认为与把太阳当作神来崇拜是不一致的，也成为了对他不敬罪的指控的依据。他逃到了赫勒斯滂的兰帕萨克斯，在那里以光荣的流亡者的身份生活，直到公元前428年去世。
The Sophists
智者\诡辩学派
Anaxagoras, during the rule of Pericles, was without rival as a resident philosopher in Athens. But during the same period the city received visits from a number of itinerant purveyors of learning who left behind reputations not inferior to his. These peripatetic teachers, or advisers, were called sophists: they were willing, for a fee, to impart many different skills and to act as consultants on a variety of topics.
在伯里克利统治时期，阿那克萨戈拉是雅典无可匹敌的本地哲学家。但在同一时期，这座城市也接待了许多流动的学问传播者，他们留下了不亚于他的声誉。这些周游的教师或顾问被称为智者：他们愿意收取一定的费用，传授各种技能，并在各种话题上提供咨询。
As there was no public system of higher education in Athens, it fell to the sophists to instruct those young men who could afford their services in the arts and information which they would need in their adult life. Given the importance of public pleading in the assembly and before the courts, rhetorical skill was at a premium, and sophists were much in demand to teach, and assist with, the presentation of a case in the most favourable possible light. Critics alleged that because they were more concerned with persuasiveness than with the pursuit of truth, the sophists were no true philosophers. None the less, the best of them were quite capable of holding their own in philosophical argument.
由于雅典没有公共的高等教育体系，所以教导那些能够负担他们服务费用的年轻人艺术和信息的任务就落到了智者身上，这些艺术和信息是他们成年后所需要的。考虑到在议会和法庭上进行公开辩护的重要性，修辞技巧是非常宝贵的，智者也因此受到了很大的需求，他们教授并协助如何以最有利的方式陈述一个案件。批评者指责他们更关心说服力而不是真理的追求，因此智者不是真正的哲学家。尽管如此，他们中最优秀的人还是很有能力在哲学论战中坚持自己的观点。
The most famous of the sophists was Protagoras of Abdera, who visited Athens several times during the mid-fifth century, and was employed by Pericles to draw up a constitution for an Athenian colony. Most of what we know of Protagoras comes from the writings of Plato, who disapproved of sophists and regarded them as a bad influence on the young, encouragers of scepticism, relativism, and cynicism. None the less, Plato took Protagoras seriously and endeavoured to provide answers to his arguments.
智者中最著名的是阿贝德拉的普罗泰戈拉，他在公元前五世纪中期多次访问雅典，并受伯里克利雇用为雅典殖民地起草宪法。我们所知道的关于普罗泰戈拉的大部分内容都来自柏拉图的著作，他不赞成智者，并认为他们对年轻人有不良影响，是怀疑论、相对主义和犬儒主义的鼓吹者。尽管如此，柏拉图还是认真对待普罗泰戈拉，并努力给出对他的论点的回答。
Protagoras was agnostic in religion. ‘About the gods,’ he said, ‘I cannot be sure whether they exist or not, or what they are like to see; for many things stand in the way of knowledge of them, both the opacity of the subject and the shortness of human life.’ He was more a humanist than a theist: ‘Man is the measure of all things,’ ran his most famous saying, ‘both of things that are that they are, and of things that are not that they are not.’
普罗泰戈拉在宗教上是不可知论者。他说：“关于神，我不能确定他们是否存在，或者他们的样子如何；因为有许多事情妨碍了对他们的认识，既有论题的不透明性，也有人类生命的短暂。”相比于有神论者，他更是一个人文主义者：“人是万物的尺度，”他最著名的格言如此说，“无论是存在的事物，还是不存在的事物。”
On the most likely interpretation, this means that whatever, whether through perception or through thought, appears to a particular person to be true, is true for that person. This does away with objective truth: nothing can be true absolutely, but only true relative to an individual. When people differ in belief, there is no way in which one of them is right and the other wrong. Democritus, and later Plato, objected that Protagoras’ doctrine destroyed itself. For if all beliefs are true, then among true beliefs is the belief that not every belief is true.
按照最可能的解释，这意味着无论是通过感知还是通过思考，对于某个特定的人来说是真的，就是对那个人来说是真的。这就否定了客观真理：没有什么可以绝对地为真，只能相对于个体而为真。当人们在信念上有分歧时，没有办法判断其中一个是对的，另一个是错的。德谟克利特和后来的柏拉图反对普罗泰戈拉的学说，认为它自相矛盾。因为如果所有的信念都是真的，那么在真实的信念中就有不是每个信念都是真的这样一个信念。【象：夫吹万不同】
Another sophist, Gorgias of Leontini, had been a pupil of Empedocles. He was first and foremost a teacher of rhetoric, whose essays on the polishing of style influenced the history of Greek oratory. But he was also a philosopher, of a tendency even more sceptical than that of Protagoras. He is said to have maintained that there is nothing, that if there is anything it cannot be known, and if anything can be known it cannot be communicated by one person to another.
另一个智者，莱昂提尼的戈尔吉亚斯，曾经是恩培多克勒的学生。他首先也是最重要的是一个修辞学教师，他关于文体修饰的论文影响了希腊演讲术的历史。但他也是一位哲学家，比普罗泰戈拉更倾向于怀疑论。据说他主张没有什么东西存在，即使有什么东西存在也无法被认识，即使有什么东西可以被认识也无法被一个人传达给另一个人。
By the time Gorgias visited Athens, in 427, a war had commenced between Athens and Sparta, known as the Peloponnesian war. Shortly after the outbreak of war, Pericles died, and campaign after campaign went badly for Athens. Defeat and plague brutalized the Athenians, and they became cruel and unscrupulous in warfare. They forfeited all claim to moral grandeur in 416 when they occupied the island of Melos, slaughtered all the adult males and enslaved the women and children. The later tragedies of Euripides, and some of the comedies of his contemporary Aristophanes, expressed an eloquent protest against the Athenian conduct of the war. It concluded with a crushing naval defeat at Aegospotami in 405 bc. The Athenian empire came to an end, and the leadership of Greece passed to Sparta. But the great days of Athenian philosophy were still to come.
在戈尔吉亚斯访问雅典的时候，公元前427年，雅典和斯巴达之间已经爆发了一场战争，被称为伯罗奔尼撒战争。战争爆发后不久，伯里克利去世了，一次又一次的战役对雅典不利。失败和瘟疫使雅典人变得野蛮和无耻，在战争中残忍无情。他们在公元前416年占领美洛斯岛时，屠杀了所有的成年男子，奴役了妇女和儿童，从而丧失了所有的道德伟大的要求。后来的欧里庇得斯的悲剧，以及他同时代的亚里士多芬的一些喜剧，都对雅典人的战争行为表达了雄辩的抗议。这场战争以公元前405年在爱戈斯波塔米的惨痛的海军失败而结束。雅典帝国走向了终结，希腊的领导地位转移到了斯巴达。但是雅典哲学的伟大时代还有待到来。
