【简译】伊丽莎白时代的运动、游戏与娱乐
Leisure activities in the Elizabethan era (1558-1603 CE) became more varied than in any previous period of English history and more professional with what might be called the first genuine entertainment industry providing the public with regular events such as theatre performances and animal baiting. Outdoor activities included tennis, bowls, archery, fencing, and team sports like football and hockey which were more violent and less rule-bound than their modern versions. Card games, board games, and gambling were all immensely popular, as were music and dancing events where people of all classes could show their skills and make new friends. The success of all these activities and the general pleasure and hilarity they produced is evidenced by the Puritan movement's hearty disapproval of just about all of them.
伊丽莎白时代（公元1558-1603年）的休闲活动比英国历史上任何时期都要丰富，而且更加专业，可以说是真正娱乐业的开端。为公众提供定期的活动，如戏剧表演和斗兽；户外活动包括网球、草地滚球、射箭、击剑，以及像足球和曲棍球这样的团队运动，这些运动比它们的现代版本更暴力，更没有规则可循。纸牌游戏、棋盘游戏和赌博都非常受欢迎，音乐和舞蹈活动也是如此，各阶层的人都可以在这里展示他们的技能并结交新朋友。从清教徒运动对几乎所有活动的衷心反对中可以看出，这些活动很成功，以及它们所产生的普遍快乐与欢闹。
富人的娱乐
Naturally, the rich, if not always completely idle, had more leisure time than most. When not managing their estates and servants, the wealthy looked to while away the time with a wide variety of activities. Meals were, of course, an opportunity to entertain friends and more distant relations, especially on Sundays and public holidays. Feasts with exotic menus were a chance to show off one's wealth, knowledge of culinary trends and good taste in fine dishes, cutlery, and glassware. In addition, some after-dinner entertainment might be provided by jugglers, acrobats, jesters, and musicians. Gardening was a popular pursuit with manuals containing handy tips available, and, naturally, having a garden was essential for many of the outdoor games mentioned below, not to mention having the cash for specialised equipment like rackets and board game pieces.
自然，富人即使不总是完全闲着，也比大多数人有更多的闲暇时间。在不管理他们的庄园和仆人的时候，富人希望通过各种各样的活动来消磨时间。当然，吃饭是招待朋友和远房亲戚的机会，特别是在星期天和公共假日。带有异国情调菜单的盛宴是炫耀自己财富、对烹饪趋势的了解以及对精美菜肴、餐具和玻璃制品的良好品味的机会。此外，杂耍者、杂技演员、小丑和音乐家可能会提供一些饭后娱乐。园艺是一种流行的追求，手册中载有方便的技巧，自然，拥有一个花园是下面提到的许多户外游戏的必要条件，更不用说有资金购买球拍和棋子等专门的娱乐设备。
贫穷者的娱乐
The poorer members of society at least had some time for their own pursuits beyond making ends meet, typically Sunday afternoons after a visit to church had been done in the morning or on public holidays. Such public entertainments as Elizabethan theatre were cheap enough for most to be able to buy a ticket, although commoners largely preferred such blood sports as animal baiting. Country dances with musicians and fiddlers were organised and towns sometimes welcomed public performances by travelling artists such as acrobats and puppeteers, Morris dancers (traditional folk dancers who wore colourful clothes, ribbons and bells) or free concerts put on by musicians known as 'waits'. Games that did not require specialised equipment were popular, although the rules for these varied much more than the more formalised games of the aristocracy and depended very much on local traditions.
贫穷者除了维持生计外，至少还有一些时间来从事自己的追求，通常是在上午参观完教堂后的周日下午，或者在公共假期。像伊丽莎白戏剧这样的公共娱乐活动对大多数人来说都很便宜，他们能够买到票，尽管平民们大多更喜欢诸如斗兽这样的血腥运动。有音乐家和小提琴手参加的乡村舞蹈很受欢迎，城镇有时也欢迎旅行艺术家的公开表演，如杂技演员和木偶戏演员、莫里斯舞者（穿着彩色衣服、系着彩带和铃铛的传统民间舞者）或音乐家们轮候举办的免费音乐会。不需要专门设备的游戏很受欢迎，尽管这些游戏的规则比贵族的正式游戏要多得多，而且在很大程度上取决于当地的传统。
狩 猎
Hunting has always been a popular activity amongst the aristocracy in order to show their skills. In the Elizabethan period, enclosures of forest land and strict poaching laws severely restricted hunting opportunities for the lower classes but the rich continued to esteem it as part of a young man's education and as an excuse for men to ride horses and spend time in their country estates. The most common victims were deer, foxes and hares. The use of trained birds to hunt was popular, as was using the increasingly more reliable and accurate gunpowder weapons to shoot. Both hunting and hawking were pursued by men and women. Fishing using a rod was also done, especially by those with artificial lakes on their estates.
狩猎一直是贵族阶层中受欢迎的活动，这可以展示他们的技能。在伊丽莎白时期，对森林土地的圈占和严格的偷猎法严重限制了下层阶级的狩猎机会，但富人继续推崇狩猎，将其作为年轻人教育的一部分，作为男人骑马和在乡间庄园消磨时间的借口。最常见的受害者是鹿、狐狸和野兔。使用训练有素的鸟类来打猎很受欢迎，使用越来越可靠和准确的火药武器来射击动物也是如此。打猎和捕猎男女都可以参加，使用鱼竿钓鱼也很流行，特别是那些在其庄园里有人工湖的富人。
斗 兽
Dogs like the bulldog and bullmastiffs, bred for their savagery, were put in pits where they would tear to pieces a single bull or bear chained to the centre of the arena. One or more of the dogs were put into the pit and went for the bull or bear's ears or nose, holding on grimly until the bigger animal collapsed from exhaustion. A judge likely decided when the match was over as bears were too rare to be killed each bout. Cock-fighting, where two trained roosters fought to the death was held in similar circular arenas and was equally popular. These bloodsports attracted bets on the likely winner and, in the case of bullbaiting, the meat of the dead animal was eaten. The arena for these sports likely influenced the later theatres for drama.
像斗牛犬和斗牛獒这样的狗，因其野性而被人们饲养，它们被放进一个大坑里，把拴在竞技场中心的一头牛或熊撕成碎片。一只或多只狗被放进坑里，咬住公牛或熊的耳朵或鼻子，顽强地坚持着，直到大型动物因疲惫而倒下。审判员可能会决定比赛何时结束，因为熊太罕见了，每场比赛稍不注意都会被杀死。斗鸡，即两只训练有素的公鸡在类似的圆形竞技场上进行生死搏斗，也同样受欢迎。这些血腥的运动吸引了人们对可能的赢家进行赌注，在以牛为饵的情况下，人们会吃掉死去动物的肉。这些运动的竞技场很可能影响了后来的戏剧院。
锦标赛与武术
Recreating medieval tournaments continued to be popular in the Elizabethan era. Although the arrival of gunpowder weapons meant that the full armour of the medieval knight was now obsolete on the battlefield, dressing up anyway and jousting still proved an attractive pastime for aristocrats. Tournaments were sometimes a part of festivals, as were military drills where bands of pikemen showed off their collective skills.
伊丽莎白时代，重现中世纪的比武仍然很受欢迎。虽然火药武器的到来意味着中世纪骑士的全副盔甲在战场上已经过时，但无论如何，穿戴整齐的盔甲和比武仍被证明对贵族们有吸引力的消遣方式。锦标赛有时是节日的一部分，军事演习也是如此，长矛手们在那里展示他们的集体技能。
Fencing was by now more common than tournaments. As with jousts, the weapons used were blunted but anyone not careful enough could still sustain a serious injury. Rapiers were heavier than those used today and the combatants only had a padded jacket for protection. Some fencing matches had the participants hold shields which came in two types: the large square or circular 'target' or the small circular 'buckler'. Other variations of the sport included holding two rapiers at once or a rapier and a dagger. Alternatively, the rapier might be replaced altogether by a normal heavy fighting sword or a long wooden pole (quarterstaff).
击剑已经比锦标赛更普遍了。与比武一样，所使用的武器都是钝器，但任何不够小心的人仍可能受到严重伤害。长剑比今天使用的长剑更重，战斗人员只有一件软垫外套作为保护。一些击剑比赛让参赛者手持盾牌，盾牌有两种类型：大的方形或圆形“靶子”盾或小的圆形“扣子”盾。这项运动的其他变化包括同时持有两把剑或一把剑和一把匕首。另外，剑客可能会被一把普通的重型格斗剑或一根长木杆（quarterstaff，一根长 6 至 9 英尺（1.8 至 2.7 m）的硬木杆身，有时在一端或两端带有金属尖端、套圈或长钉）完全取代。
Archery had been such an important part of medieval warfare that laws ensured even commoners had to practice at it. Even if archers, like knights, were less useful in warfare than they had been, the habit continued on into the 16th century CE and many an aristocratic garden or village green resounded to the twang of bowstrings in summer. Knife-throwing was another handy skill and was practised in the game of Penny Prick. Here, a penny was placed on top of a peg stuck in the ground and, from a distance, players had to throw their knife to dislodge the penny.
射箭是中世纪战争的重要组成部分，法律确保即使是平民也必须进行射箭练习。即使像骑士一样，弓箭手在战争中的作用不如以前，但这种习惯一直延续到公元16世纪，许多贵族花园或村庄的绿地在夏天都会响起弓弦的声音。掷刀是另一种方便的技能，人们可以在一种名为“Penny Prick”游戏中练习。一个便士（硬币）被放在插在地上的钉子上，玩家必须从远处扔出他们的刀来打掉这个便士。
球 类
Games played on a lawn were especially loved by the Elizabethans. Bowls (as in modern lawn bowls) was popular with both men and women, the objective being to get one's weighted bowl as near to a specified target as possible. Quoits had a similar aim but one threw stones or a metal hoop at the target which was typically a stake driven into the ground. Bowling was another variation where the objective was to knock over a group of distant objects using a single wooden ball. This game went by many different names, including skittles, kittles, nine-pegs and ten-pins.
在草坪上进行的游戏尤其受到伊丽莎白时代人们的喜爱。滚球（就像现代的草地滚球）在男女中都很流行，目的是让自己的加重球尽可能接近指定的目标。橄榄球有类似的目标，但人们向目标投掷石块或金属圈，而目标通常是一根打入地下的木桩。保龄球是另一种变体，目标是用一个木球打翻一组远处的物体。这种游戏有许多不同的名字，包括skittles、kittles、nine-pegs和ten-pins。
Lawn tennis required both space and equipment and so was reserved for the rich. Only played by men, rackets were made from wood with gut strings and the ball was made from tightly packed scraps of cloth. Handball was like tennis but players used their hands instead of rackets. Badminton was similar to the modern game in terms of the shuttlecock but Elizabethan rackets were made of solid wood and called 'battledores'.
草地网球需要空间和设备，因此是为富人保留的项目。只有男人才会打，球拍是用木头做的，用肠线绷网，球是用密密麻麻的布屑做成的。手球与网球相似，但球员用他们的手而不是球拍来击打球。那个时代，羽毛球的羽球与现代比赛中所使用的羽球相似，但伊丽莎白时代的球拍是由实木制成的，所以又被称为“板羽球”。
Another outdoor sport was football (US: soccer) which was far rowdier than today's version. Scoring goals, then as now, was the objective but tripping opponents was positively encouraged. More traditional variations which tried to get the ball across the field by any means possible, and which similarly allowed the opposition to prevent the opponent's progress by any means fair or foul, were popular in rural settings and were more violent still. The Elizabethans also played a version of hockey, called by them bandy-ball, and cricket/rounders, known as stoolball.
还有一项户外运动是足球（美国：足球），它比今天的版本要热闹得多。当时和现在一样，进球是获胜的标准，但积极鼓励绊倒对手。更为传统的变化是试图通过任何可能的手段将球传过球场，同样也允许对手通过任何公平或犯规的手段阻止对手前进，这在农村地区很受欢迎，而且更加暴力。伊丽莎白人也玩曲棍球的一个版本，他们称之为bandy-ball，还有板球/圆球，被称为stoleball。
室内游戏
Probably the two most common of all indoor leisure activities was needlework for women and reading for both sexes. Printed material of all kinds, from single broadsheets to leather-bound illustrated volumes, were increasingly produced as publishers saw the potential for printing works popular elsewhere such as Renaissance Italy. Humanist philosophy was widely read and ancient authors were revisited with the first translations in English of such writers as Tacitus (c. 56 - c. 118 CE) in the 1590s CE. There were also manuals, political and religious texts, works of history, poetry and even contemporary news reports. Reading was not necessarily done silently and alone but out loud and in groups.
在所有室内休闲活动中，最常见的两项活动可能是妇女的针线活和男女的阅读。由于出版商看到了在其他地方（如文艺复兴时期的意大利）流行的作品的印刷潜力，各种类型的印刷品，从单一的宽页印刷品到皮革装订的插图卷，产量逐渐上升。人文主义哲学被广泛阅读，古代作家也被重新审视；16世纪90年代，塔西佗（约56-约118年）等作家的作品首次被翻译成英文。此外，还有手册、政治和宗教文本、历史作品、诗歌甚至是新闻报道。阅读不一定是单独默读，还有可能是大声阅读或集体阅读。
At the other extreme, the more physical indoor games could be moderately violent. Hot Cockles involved one player putting his head on the lap of another while everyone else slapped his behind. Only by guessing who had slapped him last could the player be released from his predicament. Blindman's Buff or Hoodman Blind was another opportunity to give a friend a clout. In this game, one player was blindfolded or hooded and everyone else dealt them a blow or 'buff' if they came close. Again, identifying one's assailant meant one could be unhooded.
在另一个极端中，体能更强的室内游戏可能会有适度的暴力。Hot Cockles是指一名玩家将他的头放在另一名玩家的腿上，而其他人则拍打他的背部。只有猜出谁最后打了他一巴掌，玩家才能从他的困境中解脱出来。耍盲鸡或Hoodman Blind是另一个给朋友敲打的机会。在这个游戏中，一名玩家被蒙住眼睛或戴上头罩，如果他们靠近，其他人都会对他们进行打击。同样，确定攻击者意味着他可以解开眼罩或头套。
Quieter indoor games included chess, one of the very few activities where gambling was not generally involved. Draughts or checkers was played. There were many other board games where players had to get all of their pieces either across the board or off it altogether. Shovelboard or shove-groat (after the four-pence coin) involved sliding a disk or coin to reach as near the end of the board as possible without falling off it.
比较安静的室内游戏包括国际象棋，这是为数不多的一般不涉及赌博的活动之一。还可以玩跳棋或国际跳棋(西洋跳棋)。还有许多其他的棋盘游戏，玩家必须让他们的所有棋子穿过棋盘或完全离开棋盘。铲子棋或推子棋（在四便士硬币之后）涉及到滑动一个圆盘或硬币，以尽可能接近棋盘的末端而不掉下来。
A new board game introduced from France was The Game of Goose (still widely available in Europe today in sets of board games for children). A forerunner of many modern board games, players had to roll a dice and move along squares arranged in a spiral on a printed sheet, the objective being to reach the last square before any other player. Certain squares allowed a player to roll again (i.e. one with a goose picture) or obliged them to go backwards or miss a turn. Dice games were played by everyone, the die usually being made of bone. The numbers each had a specific name derived from French (from 1 to 6): ace, deuce, tray, cater, sink, and sise. Billiards was also introduced to England in this period.
从法国引进的一种新的棋盘游戏是赛鹅图（今天在欧洲的儿童棋盘游戏套装中仍然广泛存在）。作为许多现代棋盘游戏的先驱，玩家必须掷出骰子，沿着印刷纸上呈螺旋状排列的方块移动，目标是在其他玩家之前到达最后一个方块。某些方格允许玩家再次掷骰子（即有鹅图案的方格），或者迫使他们倒退或错过一个回合。每个人都可以玩骰子游戏，骰子通常是由骨头制成的。每个数字都有一个源自法语的特定名称（从1到6）：ace、 deuce、tray、cater、sink、and sise。在这一时期，台球也被引入英国。
Card games were popular and played by all classes. The deck of cards was the same as today's version but without a joker and the names of some cards differed: Knave for Jack, Deuce for Two, Tray for Three. There were no numbers or letters on the cards, only pictures and the King, Queen, and Knave showed a full figure (not the half mirrored image we commonly see today). Card games included reaching a specific number, for example 31, with as few cards as possible or early versions of games still played today like Ruff and Trump (Whist) and Primero (Poker) where a player had a maximum of four cards and the highest hand was four of a kind.
纸牌游戏很受欢迎，所有阶层都在玩。这副牌与今天的版本相同，但没有小丑，而且一些牌的名称也不同。Knave代表J，Deuce代表2，Tray代表3。牌上没有数字或字母，只有图片，国王、王后和黑桃显示的是一个完整的数字（而不是我们今天常见的半镜面图像）。纸牌游戏包括用尽可能少的牌达到一个特定的数字，例如31，或者是今天仍然在玩的早期版本的游戏，如Ruff and Trump（惠斯特）和Primero（扑克），其中玩家最多有四张牌，最高的牌是四张相同的。
Gambling was popular with all classes, especially using cards and dice but also on games like bowls where the betting was highly formalised. Essentially, any activity where the outcome was unpredictable led to Elizabethans wagering on it and even children were at it, using pebbles and cherry stones before they had money of their own.
赌博在各个阶层都很流行，特别是使用纸牌和骰子，但也有像球类这样的游戏，其中的赌注是高度正式的。从本质上讲，任何结果不可预测的活动都会诱使伊丽莎白时代的人们在上面下注，甚至儿童也参与其中，在他们拥有属于自己的钱之前，就使用卵石和樱桃石来下注。
音乐与舞蹈
Music performed by professionals was appreciated but many people could produce their own. Popular instruments included the recorder, fiddle, bagpipes and the pipe-and-tabor (a recorder and drum combination). For the more accomplished there was the lute, virginals (a keyboard where strings were plucked), and a type of viola known as a viol. Popular songs and ballads were sung by groups, often with lively choruses and the opportunity to shout and make a general din. Many songs had parts for each singer, known as 'catches'. Elizabethan songs covered all manner of subjects from romance to commemorating military victories to chasing foxes from farmland.
由专业人士演奏的音乐受到赞赏，但许多人可以自己制作音乐。流行的乐器包括直笛、小提琴、风笛和琵琶和pipe-and-tabor（一种直笛和鼓的组合）。对于更有成就的人来说，还有琵琶、维吉纳尔琴（一种拨动琴弦的键盘），以及一种类似小提琴的中提琴。流行歌曲和民谣是由团体演唱的，通常有生动的合唱，并有机会大喊大叫，引起一片喧哗。许多歌曲都有每个歌手的独唱部分，称为“接唱”。伊丽莎白时代的歌曲涵盖了各种主题，从浪漫主义到纪念军事胜利，再到从农田里追赶狐狸。
Dancing, too, was as popular in the 16th century CE as it was in the centuries before and since. Not only was it good exercise and fun but it was probably the best chance for the young and unmarried to meet. There were traditional English country dances but also imports from France and Italy. For those who could afford it, there were even dancing schools. Dances frequently involved men and women as partners but part of larger groups in lines or a circle or a square. Pairs held hands or linked arms, typically with the woman on the right side of the man, and at certain points throughout, all the dancers might link. Pairs might form arches with their arms for other partners to dance through. Partners might be changed and the dance completed when one was rejoined to one's original partner. Individual steps were often less important than making sure one was in the right position in respect to one's partner and the group as a whole. The speed was not so fast, typically a lively walking pace and this left opportunity for conversation between partners. Rather than being fleet of foot, then, Elizabethans impressed others on the dance floor with their general grace of movement.
舞蹈在公元16世纪也很流行。它不仅是很好的运动和乐趣，而且可能是年轻人和未婚者见面的最好机会。有传统的英国乡村舞蹈，也有来自法国和意大利的外来舞蹈。对于那些财力雄厚的人，甚至还可以去舞蹈学校学习。舞蹈经常涉及到男人和女人作为舞伴，但也是排成一排或一圈或一个广场的大团体的一部分。两人手拉手或手挽手，通常女人在男人的右边，在整个过程中的某些时候，所有的舞者可能会联系起来。两人可能会用手臂形成拱形，让其他舞伴跳过。舞伴可能会被更换，当一个人与原来的舞伴重合时，舞蹈就完成了。单独的舞步往往没有那么重要，重要的是确保自己在与伙伴和整个团体的关系中处于正确的位置。舞蹈速度并不快，通常是活泼的步行速度，这为伙伴之间的交谈留下了机会。与其说伊丽莎白人脚步轻盈，不如说他们在舞池中的动作优雅，给别人留下了深刻印象。
戏 剧
Artists had performed mime and short plays since the Middle Ages and before but the Elizabethans began to make the whole thing more professional. Country houses of the rich and the courtyards of public inns often hosted such performances in the early part of Elizabeth's reign. The masque, where masked performers and dancers performed stories based on mythology but often with a nod to contemporary politics, continued to be popular. The performers dressed in extravagant costumes and often ended their masque by mingling and dancing amongst the audience. Drama really took off with the public, though, when the first purpose-built permanent theatre was established in London in 1576 CE.
自中世纪及以前，艺术家们就开始表演哑剧和短剧，但伊丽莎白时代开始使整个事情变得更加专业。在伊丽莎白统治的早期，富人的乡村住宅和公共旅馆的庭院经常举办这种表演。假面舞会，即戴着面具的表演者和舞者表演基于神话的故事，但往往又有当代政治的影子，继续流行。表演者身着奢华的服装，并经常在假面舞会结束时与观众打成一片并跳舞。不过，当公元1576年在伦敦建立了第一个专门的永久性剧院时，戏剧才真正在公众中兴起。
Professional actors had previously belonged to touring troupes but now they had a permanent home - and other licensed theatres quickly followed in London and other cities - it became possible to put on more shows. Eventually, plays could be watched several times a day every day (except Sundays). So, too, the subject matter widened to include non-religious themes aimed at pure entertainment. Plays covered history, contemporary politics, romances, murders, and comedy. Men and women of all classes went to watch plays by such masters as William Shakespeare (1564-1616 CE) whose works were performed at the famous Globe Theatre in London.
专业演员以前属于巡回演出的剧团，但现在他们有了一个永久的家——伦敦和其他城市的其他特许剧院也迅速跟进——就有可能上演更多的演出。最终，人们每天都可以观看数次戏剧（星期日除外）。因此，主题也扩大到包括非宗教的主题，目的是为了纯粹的娱乐。戏剧涵盖历史、当代政治、浪漫、谋杀和喜剧。各个阶层的男人和女人都去观看威廉·莎士比亚（公元1564-1616年）等大师的戏剧，他们的作品在伦敦著名的环球剧院演出。
Theatres were typically circular buildings with an open roof in the centre. Spectators watched from tiers of galleries or the flat central space in front of the raised stage. The capacity of the Globe was around 2,000, some paying as little as one penny a ticket. Viewers were treated to performances involving twelve or more permanent main actors and a number of bit-part players (all males in the 16th century CE), all performing in front of elaborately painted and moveable scenery and accompanied by a lively orchestra.
剧院是典型的圆形建筑，中间有一个开放的屋顶。观众在层层长廊或高台前的平坦中央空间观看。环球剧场的容量约为2000人，有些人只需支付1便士的门票。观众可以欣赏到涉及12个或更多永久的主要演员和一些小角色的表演（在公元16世纪都是男性），他们都在精心绘制的可移动布景前表演，并由一个生动的管弦乐队伴奏。
Theatres became so popular that they inevitably received a backlash from some sections of society. Puritans, who were ever-more prominent in Elizabethan society from the 1590s CE, objected to such frivolous entertainments and considered their subject matter unsuitable for commoners and likely to corrupt their minds. In addition, Puritans thought of theatres as wholly undesirable places where only the idle, immoral, and criminal elements of society gathered. Even some business owners deplored the theatres as their employees went to watch the plays which were usually held during the daytime and so working hours. As we all know, though, such protests, even if they managed to close theatres for a while, did no lasting damage to a form of entertainment which continues to be popular today.
剧院变得如此受欢迎，不可避免地受到了社会某些阶层的反击。从16世纪90年代起，清教徒在伊丽莎白时代的社会中的地位越来越高，他们反对这种无聊的娱乐活动，认为其主题不适合平民，可能会腐蚀他们的思想。此外，清教徒认为剧院是完全不受欢迎的地方，只有社会上的闲人、不道德和犯罪分子才会聚集在这里。甚至一些企业主也对剧院感到遗憾，因为他们的雇员通常在白天和工作时间去看戏。不过，正如我们都知道的那样，这种抗议，即使他们设法关闭了剧院一段时间，也没有对今天继续流行的娱乐形式造成持久的影响。
参考书目：
Guy, John. Tudor England. Oxford University Press, 1988.
Miller, John. Early Modern Britain, 1450-1750. Cambridge University Press, 2017.
Morrill, John. The Oxford Illustrated History of Tudor & Stuart Britain. Oxford University Press, 1996.
Singman, Jeffrey, L. Daily Life in Elizabethan England. Greenwood, 1995.
Wagner, John A. Historical Dictionary of the Elizabethan World. Greenwood, 1999.
原文作者：Mark Cartwright
驻意大利的历史作家。他的主要兴趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神话和发现所有文明的共同思想。他拥有政治哲学硕士学位，是《世界历史百科全书》的出版总监。
原文网址：https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1579/sports-games--entertainment-in-the-elizabethan-era/
