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Database102

2023-06-15 00:04 作者:furiousiTy  | 我要投稿

NoSQL, which stands for "Not Only SQL," is a type of database management system that provides a flexible and scalable approach to storing and retrieving data. It emerged as a response to the limitations of traditional relational databases, especially when dealing with large-scale and complex data sets. Unlike relational databases, NoSQL databases do not rely on a fixed schema and use different data models to organize and access data. 


Key features of NoSQL databases include:


1. Schema flexibility: NoSQL databases allow for dynamic and flexible schema designs, where data structures can vary from one record to another. This enables easy adaptation to evolving data requirements and simplifies data integration.


2. Scalability: NoSQL databases are designed to handle large-scale data sets and high-volume read and write operations. They provide horizontal scalability by distributing data across multiple servers or clusters.


3. High performance: NoSQL databases offer fast and efficient data access and processing capabilities. They optimize for specific use cases, such as real-time analytics, high-speed transactions, or content management, by leveraging data models and indexing techniques tailored to those scenarios.


4. Availability and fault tolerance: NoSQL databases often employ replication and distributed architecture to ensure high availability and fault tolerance. Data is replicated across multiple nodes, allowing for automatic failover and continuous operation even in the event of hardware or network failures.


Advantages of using semi-structured data storage (often associated with NoSQL databases) over traditional relational databases include:


1. Flexibility: Semi-structured data storage allows for storing and querying data without the need for predefined schemas. This flexibility is particularly useful when dealing with unstructured or evolving data, such as social media posts, sensor data, or log files.


2. Scalability: NoSQL databases excel at horizontal scalability, allowing for seamless distribution of data across multiple nodes. This enables handling massive amounts of data and accommodating high traffic loads without sacrificing performance.


3. Performance: By optimizing data storage and retrieval for specific use cases, NoSQL databases can achieve high-performance levels. They leverage data models and indexing techniques tailored to the application requirements, resulting in faster query response times.


4. Agility: Semi-structured data storage allows for agile development and quick iterations. Developers can easily add, modify, or remove fields in the data model without worrying about schema migrations or data inconsistencies.


5. Cost-effectiveness: NoSQL databases often offer a more cost-effective solution for large-scale data storage compared to traditional relational databases. They can leverage commodity hardware and distributed architectures, reducing infrastructure costs.


It's important to note that the choice between a traditional relational database and a NoSQL database depends on the specific requirements of the application, the nature of the data, scalability needs, and development considerations. Each type of database has its strengths and trade-offs, and the selection should align with the specific use case at hand.

NoSQL代表“不仅仅是SQL”,是一种数据库管理系统,它为存储和检索数据提供了灵活且可扩展的方法。它是对传统关系数据库局限性的回应,尤其是在处理大规模复杂的数据集时。与关系数据库不同,NoSQL数据库不依赖于固定的模式,而是使用不同的数据模型来组织和访问数据。

NoSQL数据库的主要功能包括:

1.模式灵活性:NoSQL数据库允许动态和灵活的模式设计,其中数据结构可以因记录而异。这使得能够轻松适应不断变化的数据需求,并简化数据集成。

2.可扩展性:NoSQL数据库设计用于处理大规模数据集和高容量读写操作。它们通过在多个服务器或集群之间分布数据来提供横向可扩展性。

3.高性能:NoSQL数据库提供快速高效的数据访问和处理能力。他们通过利用针对这些场景定制的数据模型和索引技术,针对特定用例进行优化,如实时分析、高速事务或内容管理。

4.可用性和容错:NoSQL数据库通常采用复制和分布式体系结构来确保高可用性和容错性。数据跨多个节点进行复制,即使在发生硬件或网络故障的情况下也可以实现自动故障切换和连续操作。

与传统关系数据库相比,使用半结构化数据存储(通常与NoSQL数据库相关)的优势包括:

1.灵活性:半结构化数据存储允许在不需要预定义模式的情况下存储和查询数据。这种灵活性在处理非结构化或不断发展的数据时尤其有用,例如社交媒体帖子、传感器数据或日志文件。

2.可扩展性:NoSQL数据库擅长横向可扩展性,允许数据在多个节点之间无缝分布。这使得能够在不牺牲性能的情况下处理大量数据并适应高流量负载。

3.性能:通过针对特定用例优化数据存储和检索,NoSQL数据库可以达到高性能级别。它们利用了根据应用程序需求定制的数据模型和索引技术,从而加快了查询响应时间。

4.敏捷性:半结构化数据存储允许敏捷开发和快速迭代。开发人员可以轻松地添加、修改或删除数据模型中的字段,而无需担心架构迁移或数据不一致。

5.成本效益:与传统的关系数据库相比,NoSQL数据库通常为大规模数据存储提供更具成本效益的解决方案。他们可以利用商品硬件和分布式体系结构,降低基础设施成本。

需要注意的是,传统关系数据库和NoSQL数据库之间的选择取决于应用程序的特定需求、数据的性质、可扩展性需求和开发考虑因素。每种类型的数据库都有其优势和权衡,选择应该与手头的特定用例保持一致。

两阶段锁定协议(2PL)是数据库系统中使用的一种并发控制机制,用于确保可序列化性和防止事务之间的冲突。它包括两个阶段:成长阶段和萎缩阶段。

1.生长阶段:

-锁定获取:当事务开始时,它可以获取需要访问的数据库对象(如表、记录)的锁定。锁有两种类型:共享(S)锁和独占(X)锁。

-共享(S)锁:允许多个事务同时读取同一数据,但防止任何事务修改数据。

-独占(X)锁:授予对事务的独占访问权限,防止其他事务读取或写入锁定的数据。

-严格两阶段锁定:在增长阶段,事务遵循严格的两阶段锁定规则,该规则规定事务在释放任何锁之前必须获取所有所需的锁。这样可以确保在事务执行过程中不会发生冲突。

2.收缩阶段:

-锁释放:一旦事务完成了对数据项的访问,它就可以释放所持有的锁。收缩阶段发生在事务释放了所有锁之后。

-无锁获取:在收缩阶段,交易无法获取任何新锁。它只能释放以前获取的锁。

两相锁定协议(2PL)的优点:

1.可串行性:2PL协议通过防止事务之间的冲突来保证可串行性。它确保事务的交错执行产生与串行执行相同的结果,从而保持数据一致性。

2.死锁预防:通过强制执行在释放任何锁之前获取所有所需锁的严格规则,2PL协议可以防止死锁。当事务无限期地等待其他事务持有的资源时,就会发生死锁,2PL避免了这种情况。

3.简单性:2PL协议的实现和理解相对简单。它为管理锁和控制对共享数据的并发访问提供了一种简单的机制。

4.并发控制:2PL允许多个事务同时读取共享数据,从而实现更高程度的并发。它优化了系统资源的利用率,同时确保了数据的完整性。

5.与基于磁盘的系统的兼容性:2PL协议与数据存储在非易失性存储器上的基于磁盘的数据库系统兼容。它确保在考虑磁盘I/O操作的情况下正确获取和释放必要的锁。

尽管2PL协议有其优点,但它也有局限性,例如在事务频繁相互冲突的情况下,潜在的锁争用和并发性降低。已经开发了高级并发控制机制,如多版本并发控制(MVCC)和乐观并发控制(OCC)来解决这些限制。

__________________________________________________________________________

(a) SQL查询语句以返回partnum为'P001'的数量:

```

SELECT quantity

FROM Part-schema

WHERE partnum = 'P001';

```


(b) SQL查询语句以返回至少提供了2个熔岩灯零件的供应商名称:

```

SELECT suppliername

FROM Supplies-schema

GROUP BY suppliername

HAVING COUNT(partnum) >= 2;

```


(c) SQL查询语句以返回提供partnum为'P001'的最低价格和公司存储的数量的供应商名称:

```

SELECT suppliername, quantity

FROM Part-schema, Supplies-schema

WHERE Part-schema.partnum = Supplies-schema.partnum

AND partnum = 'P001'

AND cost <= ALL(SELECT cost FROM Supplies-schema WHERE partnum = 'P001');

```


请注意,这些查询语句基于提供的关系模式和要求进行了编写,但实际运行时可能需要根据具体的数据库系统和数据存储结构进行微调。

(d) 查找只提供1个零件给该公司的供应商的供应商名称:

```sql

SELECT suppliername

FROM Supplies-schema

GROUP BY suppliername

HAVING COUNT(partnum) = 1;

```


(e) 查找为该公司提供partnum为'P001'但不提供partnum为'P002'的供应商名称:

```sql

SELECT suppliername

FROM Supplies-schema

WHERE suppliername IN (

    SELECT suppliername

    FROM Supplies-schema Sc1

    WHERE NOT EXISTS (

        SELECT *

        FROM Supplies-schema Sc2

        WHERE Sc2.partnum = 'P002' AND Sc2.suppliername = Sc1.suppliername

    )

    AND Sc1.partnum = 'P001'

);

```


(f) 查找为该公司提供最多零件的供应商的供应商名称:

```sql

SELECT suppliername

FROM Supplies-schema

GROUP BY suppliername

HAVING COUNT(partnum) = (

    SELECT MAX(partCount)

    FROM (

        SELECT COUNT(partnum) AS partCount

        FROM Supplies-schema

        GROUP BY suppliername

    ) AS subquery

);

```


请注意,这些查询语句基于提供的关系模式和要求进行了编写,但实际运行时可能需要根据具体的数据库系统和数据存储结构进行微调。



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