Byzantium at War AD 600-1453（战争中的拜占庭：公元600-1453年）（16）

作者：John Haldon约翰·哈尔顿

出版商：Routledge Taylor & Francis Group

自翻：神尾智代

Warfare and east Roman society

战争与东罗马社会

          Warfare was for much of the Byzantine world, throughout much of its history, the normal state of affairs. Its effects were manifested in a number of ways. To begin with, the ordinary population of the empire was directly affected by hostile activity in those areas most exposed to enemy attack, they suffered the destruction of their crops and dwellings, the theft or slaughter of their livestock, and if they were themselves caught, possible death or enslavement. There survive some short but evocative inscriptions from the frontier regions of Asia Minor, dating to the middle Byzantine period, which commemorate individuals who died of their wounds following a battle or raid; other accounts tell of relatives carried off into captivity or lost in the confusion of an enemy attack and never seen again. And the literate elite was just as aware of these aspects: warfare imposed itself upon many facets of Byzantine literary culture, in saints' lives, in speeches in praise of emperors, in funeral orations, in sermons and homilies to church congregations, in private letters addressed to individuals. Themes such as death, loss of property and so forth occur frequently, and in some cases the terror inspired by a sudden enemy raid is graphically portrayed. Letters often bewail the effects of warfare, with references to the tears of orphaned children and widowed mothers, the destruction of crops, homes, monastic communities, the enslavement or death of populations, driving off of livestock and so forth.

（战争在拜占庭世界的大部分地区，在其大部分历史中都是正常的事态。它的影响表现在许多方面。首先，帝国的普通民众在那些最容易受到敌人攻击的地区直接受到敌对活动的影响，他们的庄稼和住宅遭到破坏，牲畜被盗或屠宰，如果他们自己被抓住，可能的死亡或奴役。小亚细亚边境地区有一些简短但令人回味的铭文，可以追溯到拜占庭中期，这些铭文纪念在战斗或袭击中因伤而死的人；其他说法讲述了亲属被囚禁或迷失在敌人袭击的混乱中，再也没有见过。文学精英也同样意识到这些方面：战争强加于拜占庭文学文化的许多方面，包括圣人的生活、赞美皇帝的演讲、葬礼演说、对教会的布道和讲道、私人信件。致个人。死亡、财产损失等主题经常出现，在某些情况下，由突然的敌人突袭引发的恐怖被生动地描绘出来。信件经常哀悼战争的影响，提到孤儿和寡妇的眼泪，庄稼、房屋、修道院社区的破坏，人口的奴役或死亡，牲畜被赶走等等。）

          The presence of Byzantine troops was no less onerous, however. The very existence of an army brought with it the need to supply and provision it, to supply materials and livestock for it when it was on campaign, to provide lodgings and billets for officers and soldiers, and so on. There were extensive and burdensome logistical demands wherever an army was present, not just a question of demands made by the army on local populations, but also the fact that government intervention into the local economy often affected the economic equilibrium of the affected districts. This could either take the form of fixing artificially low prices for the sale of produce to the army, thus harming the producers, or of by sudden heavy demand for certain produce, thus driving tip prices for those in the private sector. The civilian population might also be compelled to bake bread and biscuits for the troops as well as providing other supplies and, in addition, they were subjected to the plundering and pillaging of the less well- disciplined elements of the army. Quite apart from this was the potential for conflict between soldiers and civilians, for the outcome was seldom favourable to the latter.

（然而，拜占庭军队的维护同样繁重。军队的存在本身就带来了供给和供给的需要，在征战时为它提供物资和牲畜，为官兵提供住宿和营房等等。军队所在的任何地方都有广泛而繁重的后勤需求，不仅是军队对当地居民的要求问题，而且政府对当地经济的干预往往会影响受影响地区的经济平衡。这可能采取人为固定向军队出售产品的低价的形式，从而损害生产者，或者通过突然对某些产品的大量需求，从而推高私营部门人员的小费价格。平民也可能被迫为部队烤面包和饼干以及提供其他补给品，此外，他们还遭受军队中纪律性较差的人员的掠夺和掠夺。除此之外，士兵和平民之间可能会发生冲突，因为结果很少有利于后者。）

          Additional levies in grain were particularly onerous, and there are frequent complaints in the written documentation concerning this and related burdens, usually a result of either special requirements for particular campaigns or the normal operational demands made by the troops in a particular region. In addition to these demands, provincial populations had to provide resources and manpower for the maintenance of the public post, the dromos, with its system of posting stations and stables, stud farms and breeding ranches, mule-trains and associated requirements. The postal system served the needs of both the military and the fiscal administration of the state. It helped with the movement of military supplies, was responsible for the rapid transit of couriers and imperial officials of all kinds, as well as important foreigners — diplomatic officials or prisoners of war, for example. The households that were obligated to carry out certain duties for the post were, like households that had to support a soldier, released from the extraordinary state impositions, and this was an important aspect of the smooth running of the provincial postal system.

（对粮食的额外征税尤其繁重，书面文件中经常有关于这方面和相关负担的抱怨，通常是由于特定战役的特殊要求或特定地区部队的正常作战需求。 除了这些需求之外，省级人口还必须提供资源和人力来维护公共邮政、dromos 及其邮政站和马厩、种马场和养殖场、骡车和相关要求的系统。 邮政系统同时满足军队和国家财政管理的需要。 它帮助运送军事物资，负责各种信使和帝国官员以及重要的外国人（例如外交官员或战俘）的快速运输。 承担一定岗位职责的户户，如同养兵户一样，摆脱了特殊的国家强制措施，这是省邮政系统平稳运行的重要方面。）

          The nature of the burden which the provincial population bore in support of the army can he seen particularly clearly in a series of documents of the later 10th and especially the 11th century. It consisted of imperial grants of exemption from the billeting of soldiers, the provision of supplies for various categories of troops in transit, the provision of horses, mules and wagons for the army, and the delivery of charcoal and timber for military purposes. Some accounts in chronicles detail the sort of requirements needed to mount major military expeditions — large numbers of draught-animals, wagons and foodstuffs, for example, and increases in demands for supplies of all kinds; all were provided by requisitions from the local peasantry who suffered considerably from this form of indirect taxation. Economic and demographic disruption affected not just the people who lived in the provinces or towns that suffered during periods of fighting. It also directly threatened the government's control over its resources and the ability of the Church to maintain its spiritual authority and to supervise the communities most affected. Some worries about supposed 'pagan' practices and folk beliefs appear in texts and letters of the time, for example. Archaeological and written information about populations fleeing from the path of invaders or the movement of settlements to more secure sites testifies to the effects of warfare in certain areas. And it took a Iong time for the worst affected areas to recover. Again, the evidence suggests as long as three centuries before economic and demographic decline was halted. And the effects of warfare were also visible on a day-to-day basis, in the structure of defended settlements, the shrinking and abandonment of towns, the ubiquitous forts and fortresses guarding key strategic points, crossroads, passes, valleys, bridges. And according to several reports the more gruesome effects of warfare could be seen on the battlefields themselves: in one text the author describes how the bones of the soldiers slain at a conflict a few years beforehand could still be seen littering the ground over which the battle was fought. Yet, while warfare disrupted social and cultural life, it also influenced the patterns of daily existence. Different cultural traditions evolved in regions regularly affected by fighting and enemy action, especially in the east. The seasonal nature of the fighting had quite a lot to do with this, for in many areas distinctive cultures and societies developed on both sides of the frontier, engendering values and ways of life very different from those of the interior or the metropolitan districts around Constantinople, for example, also encouraging intercultural contacts, influences and traditions very different from the mainstream. We should bear in mind that soldiers and their families were no more exempt from these effects than the rest of the population. But while the parents of young men called up for military service wept and lamented as they said goodbye to their sons, the more privileged were able to deploy powerful contacts to have them released from serving in the army: on grounds of economic hardship, for example!

（精神权威并监督受影响最严重的社区。 例如，一些对所谓的“异教”习俗和民间信仰的担忧出现在当时的文本和信件中。 关于人口逃离入侵者路径或定居点迁移到更安全地点的考古和书面信息证明了战争在某些地区的影响。 受灾最严重的地区需要很长时间才能恢复。 再一次，证据表明，在经济和人口下降停止之前长达三个世纪。 战争的影响在日常生活中也很明显，在防御定居点的结构中，城镇的缩小和废弃，无处不在的堡垒和堡垒守卫着关键的战略要地、十字路口、关口、山谷、桥梁。 根据几份报告，在战场上可以看到更可怕的战争影响：在一篇文章中，作者描述了几年前在冲突中被杀的士兵的骨头仍然可以看到散落在战斗的地面上。 被打了。 然而，虽然战争扰乱了社会和文化生活，但它也影响了日常生活的模式。不同的文化传统在经常受到战斗和敌人行动影响的地区演变，特别是在东部。 战斗的季节性与此有很大关系，因为在许多地区，边境两侧发展了独特的文化和社会，产生了与内陆或君士坦丁堡周围大都市区截然不同的价值观和生活方式 例如，还鼓励与主流截然不同的跨文化接触、影响和传统。 我们应该牢记，士兵及其家人并不比其他人更能免于这些影响。 但是，虽然年轻男子的父母在与儿子告别时哭泣和哀叹，但更有特权的人能够部署强大的联系人让他们从军队中解脱出来：例如，以经济困难为由！）

          The negative aspect was to some extent balanced by an alternative set of views, however. Popular approval and enthusiasm for war could be encouraged, and the emperors exploited court ceremonial at Constantinople specifically to this end. Triumphal processions, accompanied by displays of booty and prisoners, hymns of thanksgiving, the acclamations reminding the emperors (and the crowd who were in earshot) of their Christian duty to defend Orthodoxy and the empire, all were directed to achieve a particular consensus about warfare and the emperor's duty to defend orthodoxy. Poets were commissioned to write and declaim verse accounts of the emperor's courage, strategic skill and military achievements: the poet George of Pisidia thus composed a series of laudatory poems in the 620s and 630s about the victories of the emperor Heraclius over Avars and Persians, while in the 10th century Theodosios the Deacon similarly praised the victories of the emperor Nikephoros 11 Phokas. Other members of the cultural and political elite composed letters in praise of the emperor's deeds in war, so that the glorification of military deeds and of individual leaders or emperors was part of the staple production of composers in verse and prose. As an unfortunate but necessary means of achieving a divinely approved end, warfare could thus be given a very positive gloss. Such views were not necessarily shared by the many thousands of peasants and townspeople who suffered over the centuries. The degree to which warfare was fundamental to the fabric of late Roman and Byzantine society and historical development is evident in our sources. The physical appearance of the Byzantine countryside, social values, cultural attitudes, government fiscal and administrative organisation, themes in literature and art; all these different aspects of cultural and material life were directly influenced by the beleaguered situation of the medieval east Roman state and its need to fight wars.

（然而，消极方面在某种程度上被另一种观点所平衡。可以鼓励民众对战争的认可和热情，皇帝们专门为此目的利用君士坦丁堡的宫廷礼仪。凯旋游行，伴随着战利品和囚犯的展示，感恩的赞美诗，提醒皇帝（和听到的人群）他们的基督教责任捍卫东正教和帝国的鼓掌，所有这些都是为了达成关于战争的特定共识 以及皇帝捍卫正统的职责。诗人受命撰写和宣扬皇帝的勇气、战略技巧和军事成就的诗篇：因此，皮西迪亚的诗人乔治在 620 和 630 年代创作了一系列赞美希拉克略皇帝战胜阿瓦尔和波斯人的诗歌，而 在 10 世纪，执事狄奥多西斯同样赞扬了尼基弗罗斯 11 福卡斯皇帝的胜利。其他文化和政治精英成员写信赞美皇帝在战争中的事迹，因此赞美军事功绩和个别领导人或皇帝是作曲家主要创作的诗歌和散文的一部分。因此，作为实现神所认可的目的的不幸但必要的手段，战争可以被赋予非常积极的光泽。几个世纪以来，成千上万遭受苦难的农民和市民不一定认同这种观点。战争对晚期罗马和拜占庭社会的结构和历史发展的基础程度在我们的资料中是显而易见的。 拜占庭乡村的外貌、社会价值观、文化态度、政府财政和行政组织、文学和艺术主题；文化和物质生活的所有这些不同方面都直接受到中世纪东罗马国家四面楚歌的局势及其战争需要的影响。）

未完待续