Organization Science 2023年第1期

Volume 34, Issue 1, January-February 2023

                                                                                 ——更多动态，请持续关注gzh：理想主义的百年孤独

1.External Interfaces or Internal Processes? Market Positioning and Divergent Professionalization Paths in Young Ventures

外部接口还是内部流程?年轻企业的市场定位与专业化路径的分化

Alicia DeSantola , Ranjay Gulati , Pavel I. Zhelyazkov

We explore how the initial market positioning of entrepreneurial ventures shapes how they professionalize over time, focusing specifically on the development of functional roles. In contrast to existing literature, which presumes a uniform march toward professionalization as ventures scale and complete developmental milestones, we advance a contingent perspective, distinguishing between the development of external interface functions (marketing & sales and customer development) and internal process functions (accounting, human resources, and finance). Specifically, we argue that positioning in an unconventional market space raises demand for external engagement that focuses ventures’ attention and resources toward developing external interface roles. At the same time, such unconventional ventures are less apt to elaborate their internal process roles relative to more conventional peers. We test these predictions using a novel longitudinal data set on the internal organizations of 3,748 U.S.-based entrepreneurial ventures. In contrast to common assumptions of convergent professionalization, our theory and findings advance the perspective that ventures pursue divergent professionalization paths based on their initial market positioning as they scale up.

我们探讨创业企业最初的市场定位如何影响他们随着时间的推移如何专业化，特别关注职能角色的发展。现有文献认为，随着企业规模的扩大和发展里程碑的完成，企业会向专业化方向统一前进。与此相反，我们提出了一个偶然的观点，区分外部接口功能(市场营销和客户开发)和内部流程功能(会计、人力资源和财务)的发展。具体而言，我们认为，在非常规市场空间中的定位提高了对外部参与的需求，将风险投资的注意力和资源集中在开发外部接口角色上。与此同时，与更传统的同行相比，这种非传统的企业不太倾向于详细说明其内部流程角色。我们使用3748家美国创业企业的内部组织的新颖纵向数据集来检验这些预测。与趋同专业化的常见假设相反，我们的理论和研究结果提出了这样一个观点:随着企业规模的扩大，它们根据最初的市场定位追求不同的专业化路径。

2.The Role of Resources in the Success or Failure of Diverse Teams: Resource Scarcity Activates Negative Performance-Detracting Resource Dynamics in Social Category Diverse Teams

资源在多元团队成败中的作用:资源稀缺性在社会类别多元团队中激活负面绩效减损资源动态

Siyu Yu , Lindred L. Greer

Increasing the social category diversity of work teams is top of mind for many organizations. However, such efforts may not always be sufficiently resourced, given the numerous resource demands facing organizations. In this paper, we offer a novel take on the relationship between social category diversity and team performance, seeking to understand the role resources may play in both altering and explaining the performance dynamics of diverse teams. Specifically, our resource framework explains how the effects of social category diversity on team performance can be explained by intrateam resource cognitions and behaviors and are dependent on team resource availability. We propose that in the face of scarcity in a focal resource (i.e., budget), diverse (but not homogenous) teams generalize this scarcity perception to fear that all resources (i.e., staff, time, etc.) are scarce, prompting performance-detracting power struggles over resources within the team. We find support for our model in three multimethod team-level studies, including two laboratory studies of interacting teams and a field study of work teams in research and development firms. Our resource framework provides a new lens to study the success or failure of diverse teams by illuminating a previously overlooked danger in diverse teams (negative resource cognitions (scarcity spillover bias) and behaviors (intrateam power struggles)), which offers enhanced explanatory power over prior explanations. This resource framework for the study of team diversity also yields insight into how to remove the roadblocks that may occur in diverse teams, highlighting the necessity of resource sufficiency for the success of diverse teams.

增加工作团队的社会类别多样性是许多组织的首要任务。但是，鉴于各组织所面临的大量资源需求，这种努力可能并不总是有足够的资源。在本文中，我们对社会类别多样性和团队绩效之间的关系提出了一种新颖的看法，试图理解资源在改变和解释多样化团队绩效动态方面可能发挥的作用。具体来说，我们的资源框架解释了社会类别多样性对团队绩效的影响如何可以通过团队内部资源认知和行为来解释，并且依赖于团队资源可用性。我们建议，在面对焦点资源(即预算)的稀缺性时，多样化(但不是同质化)团队将这种稀缺性认知概括为担心所有资源(即人员、时间等)都是稀缺的，从而在团队内部引发影响绩效的资源权力斗争。我们在三个多方法团队层面的研究中找到了对我们模型的支持，包括两项相互作用团队的实验室研究和一项对研发公司工作团队的实地研究。我们的资源框架提供了一个新的视角来研究多元化团队的成功或失败，通过阐明多元化团队中以前被忽视的危险(消极的资源认知(稀缺溢出偏见)和行为(团队内部的权力斗争)，它提供了比先前解释更强的解释力。这一研究团队多样性的资源框架也产生了如何消除多元化团队中可能出现的障碍的见解，突出了资源充足对多元化团队成功的必要性。

3.The Price of Belonging: Price Setting in the Market for Champagne Grapes

归属的价格:香槟葡萄市场的价格设定

Amandine Ody-Brasier

Various studies show that social relations between exchange partners affect price setting behaviors. Although scholars expect a broad range of buyer–seller relations to shape price—and different types of relations to have different effects—we have surprisingly little quantitative evidence for these views. This is in part because extant empirical work operationalizes relations rather narrowly, focusing on repeated exchange relations. Drawing on existing theory and fieldwork in the market for Champagne grapes, this paper investigates how community relations and repeated exchange shape price setting behavior. I use unique transaction-level price data to document the effects of these two types of buyer–seller relations. I find that community relations reduce deviations from local pricing norms such that, for an average transaction, grape sellers charge about €1,500 less when the buyer belongs to their village or school district. I draw on rich qualitative data to illustrate what is driving these effects. Interviews reveal not only that social relations infuse in the exchange a logic of action at odds with the logic of markets, but also, importantly, that there is some heterogeneitywithin the embedded logic of exchange. In particular, community relations appear to be more constraining than repeated exchange for price setters.

各种研究表明，交易伙伴之间的社会关系影响价格制定行为。尽管学者们认为，影响价格的是广泛的买卖关系，而且不同类型的关系会产生不同的影响，但令人惊讶的是，我们几乎没有能证明这些观点的定量证据。这在一定程度上是因为现有的经验工作对关系的操作化相当狭隘，只关注重复交换关系。利用现有理论和香槟葡萄市场的实地调查，本文研究了社区关系和重复交换如何影响价格制定行为。我使用独特的交易级价格数据来记录这两种类型的买卖关系的影响。我发现，社区关系可以减少与当地定价规范的偏差，例如，对于一笔平均交易而言，如果买家来自他们所在的村庄或学区，葡萄卖家的要价会低1500欧元左右。我利用丰富的定性数据来说明是什么推动了这些影响。访谈不仅揭示了社会关系在交换中注入了一种与市场逻辑不一致的行动逻辑，而且重要的是，在嵌入的交换逻辑中存在某种异质性。特别是，共同体关系似乎比价格制定者的反复交换更具限制性。

4.A Star Is Born: The Relationship Between Performance and Achieving Status Through Certification Contests in the Context of Equity Analysts

一个明星的诞生:在股票分析师的背景下，通过认证竞赛，表现和获得地位之间的关系

Eugene Taeha Paik , Timothy G. Pollock , Steven Boivie, Donald Lange , Peggy M. Lee

We investigate how the relationship between status and performance decouples over time by addressing two questions: (1) how performance affects the likelihood that an actor achieves high status and (2) how achieving high status affects the actor’s subsequent performance. In doing so, we focus on the role repeated certification contests play, where evaluators assess actors’ performance along particular dimensions and confer high status on the contest winners. Using the context of sell-side (brokerage) equity analysts and the “All-Star” list fromInstitutional Investor magazine, we first investigate whether analysts who make the All-Star list are more likely to produce accurate and/or independent forecasts. Then, we investigate analyst performance after recent and multiple wins. Our results demonstrate the decoupling of status and performance over time and the roles played by both the high-status actor and the social evaluators conferring their status. Whereas analyst performance increases the likelihood of being designated an All-Star, recent and multiple All-Star designations differentially affect both how subsequent performance is assessed, and how the All-Star analysts subsequently perform. In the short term, achieving high status can increase performance and solidify an analyst’s status position; however, in the long term, it can lead to lower performance and eventually result in status loss, which further erodes performance.

我们通过解决两个问题来研究地位和表现之间的关系如何随着时间的推移而解耦:(1)表现如何影响行动者获得高地位的可能性;(2)获得高地位如何影响行动者随后的表现。在这样做的过程中，我们将重点放在重复认证竞赛所扮演的角色上，其中评估人员根据特定维度评估参与者的表现，并授予竞赛获胜者较高的地位。在卖方(经纪公司)股票分析师和《机构投资者》杂志“全明星”榜单的背景下，我们首先调查入选全明星榜单的分析师是否更有可能做出准确和/或独立的预测。然后，我们调查分析师在最近和多次获胜后的表现。我们的研究结果表明，随着时间的推移，地位和表现以及高地位的行动者和赋予他们地位的社会评估者所扮演的角色是脱钩的。尽管分析师的表现增加了被指定为全明星的可能性，但最近和多次被指定为全明星对随后的绩效评估以及全明星分析师随后的表现都有不同的影响。从短期来看，获得较高的地位可以提高业绩并巩固分析师的地位;但是，从长远来看，它会导致性能下降，并最终导致状态丢失，从而进一步削弱性能。

5.Incentivizing Effort Allocation Through Resource Allocation: Evidence from Scientists’ Response to Changes in Funding Policy

通过资源分配激励努力分配:来自科学家对资助政策变化的反应的证据

Michael Blomfield, Keyvan Vakili

Prior research in management and economics has predominantly focused on how managers or policymakers can shape workers’ allocation of effort using output-based or effort-based incentives. In many settings, however, managers may seek to influence workers’ effort choices through resource allocation—that is, changing the cost of securing resources for different projects or activities. In this paper, we develop a formal model to investigate how a worker changes the allocation of a fixed amount of effort across different projects in response to changes in the cost of securing resources for each project. Our model shows how cutting resources available to one project, under certain circumstances, can inadvertently reduce the share of effort allocated to other projects and vice versa. We use the insights from the model to explore the effectiveness of funding strategies designed to influence the research direction of academic scientists. We specifically examine how U.S. scientists working in stem cell research responded to a 2001 policy change that restricted access to federal funding for research in the human embryonic stem cell (hESC) area. In line with our model’s predictions, we find that cutting resources for hESC research inadvertently reduced U.S. scientists’ output in non-hESC areas of stem cell research—an effect that is strongest among the highest-ability scientists. Our findings highlight the complexities of incentivizing effort allocation using resource-based incentives. In particular, we show how altering resource-based incentives in one area can have unforeseen spillover effects on effort allocation in other areas.

管理学和经济学的先前研究主要集中在管理者或政策制定者如何利用基于产出或基于努力的激励来塑造员工的努力分配。然而，在许多情况下，管理者可能会试图通过资源分配来影响员工的努力选择，也就是说，改变为不同项目或活动获取资源的成本。在本文中，我们开发了一个正式的模型来研究工作人员如何在不同的项目中改变固定工作量的分配，以响应每个项目确保资源的成本的变化。我们的模型表明，在某些情况下，削减一个项目的可用资源会无意中减少分配给其他项目的工作份额，反之亦然。我们利用该模型的见解来探索旨在影响学术科学家研究方向的资助策略的有效性。我们特别研究了从事干细胞研究的美国科学家如何应对2001年限制获得联邦资金用于人类胚胎干细胞(hESC)领域研究的政策变化。与我们模型的预测一致，我们发现，削减胚胎干细胞研究的资源无意中减少了美国科学家在非胚胎干细胞研究领域的产出——这种影响在能力最强的科学家中表现得最为明显。我们的研究结果强调了使用基于资源的激励来激励努力分配的复杂性。特别是，我们展示了在一个领域改变基于资源的激励机制如何对其他领域的努力分配产生不可预见的溢出效应。

6.Data-Induced Rationality and Unitary Spaces in Interfirm Collaboration

数据理性与企业间协作中的单一空间

Katharina Cepa , Henri Schildt

The real-time data transfer between collaborating companies allows them to represent and control activities across firm boundaries, providing new ways to organize collaborative efforts. We conducted an inductive multiple case study of five long-term relationships to examine the effects of data-intensive technologies on the organization and management of collaborative relationships in industrial companies. Our analysis shows how the delegation of digital activities into specialized digital units fostered data-driven mindsets and data-driven interactions that jointly formed a holistic data-induced rationality for managing the relationship. Together, the compartmentalization of digital collaboration and the data-induced rationalities turned these units into “unitary spaces,” organizational enclosures where structural tensions and competing demands were temporarily suspended to foster single-minded pursuit of collaborative short-term benefits for the partner company.

合作公司之间的实时数据传输使他们能够代表和控制跨公司边界的活动，提供了组织协作工作的新方法。我们对五种长期关系进行了归纳多案例研究，以检验数据密集型技术对工业公司协作关系的组织和管理的影响。我们的分析表明，将数字活动委托给专门的数字单位，如何培养数据驱动的思维方式和数据驱动的互动，共同形成了管理关系的整体数据诱导理性。总之，数字协作的划分和数据诱导的合理性将这些单元变成了“单一空间”，在组织圈地中，结构紧张和竞争需求被暂时搁置，以促进合作伙伴公司一心一意地追求合作的短期利益。

7.The Road Not Taken: Technological Uncertainty and the Evaluation of Innovations

未走的路:技术的不确定性和创新的评估

David Tan

When venturing into unfamiliar areas of technology, inventors face ex ante technological uncertainty, that is many possible alternative technological paths going forward and limited guidance from existing technological knowledge for predicting the likelihood that a given path will successfully result in an invention. I theorize, however, that this ex ante technological uncertainty becomes less apparent when evaluating inventions in hindsight. When one knows that a given technological path turned out to be successful ex post, it may be difficult to appreciate the ex ante plausibility of reasons to prefer alternative paths. As a result, inventions may seem more obvious to those evaluating inventions with the benefit of hindsight. My theory yields a counterintuitive implication; when inventors venture into less familiar areas of technology, there is a greater risk of evaluators overestimating obviousness due to hindsight bias. Empirical evidence comes from novel data on accepted and rejected patent applications, including hand-collected data from the text of applicant objections to obviousness rejections and examiners’ subsequent reversals of rejections in response to applicant objections.

当冒险进入不熟悉的技术领域时，发明者面临着预先的技术不确定性，即未来有许多可能的替代技术路径，而现有技术知识在预测给定路径成功导致发明的可能性方面的指导有限。然而，我的理论是，当事后评价发明时，这种事前的技术不确定性就不那么明显了。当一个人知道某一特定的技术路径在事后被证明是成功的，可能就很难理解选择其他路径的理由的事前合理性。因此，对于那些用后见之明来评估发明的人来说，发明似乎更明显。我的理论产生了一种违反直觉的暗示;当发明者冒险进入不太熟悉的技术领域时，由于后见之明的偏见，评估者高估明显性的风险更大。经验证据来自被接受和被拒绝的专利申请的新数据，包括从申请人反对明显性拒绝的文本中手工收集的数据，以及审查员随后针对申请人反对而撤销拒绝的数据。

8.Caught in an Expectations Trap: Risks of Giving Securities Analysts What They Expect

陷入预期陷阱:给证券分析师预期的风险

Guilhem Bascle , Jiwook Jung

Although recent research shows that there is mounting pressure on firms to achieve earnings expectations of securities analysts, firms are far from being passive conformers; many firms proactively manage such pressure, particularly with earnings management tools. Yet why does the pressure to meet analyst expectations persist despite firms’ efforts to reduce it? To address the question, we develop an intertemporal model of the mutually reinforcing relationships between analyst expectations and firms’ strategic response, combining the behavioral theory of the firm and the concept of expectations trap. We argue that firms’ efforts to meet analyst expectations strengthen their salience as a predominant performance benchmark and, in doing so, ironically put them under greater pressure from analysts in three sequentially related steps—escalating future earnings expectations, imposing more severe penalties for failure to meet heightened expectations, and generating compensatory action for missed expectations. Our analysis, using data on more than 700 of the largest listed U.S. firms between 1986 and 2015, supports our arguments. Our study expands the scope of the behavioral theory of the firm, by demonstrating the increasing importance of performance feedback based on analyst expectations. Our study also contributes to the research on earnings pressure, by illuminating why the pressure persists despite firms’ efforts to reduce or evade it, and finally to the literature on strategic management of external expectations, by elaborating its unintended, long-term consequences.

尽管最近的研究表明，企业要达到证券分析师的盈利预期，面临着越来越大的压力，但企业远不是被动的从众者;许多公司积极应对这种压力，特别是利用盈余管理工具。然而，尽管公司努力减少压力，但为什么满足分析师预期的压力仍然存在?为了解决这个问题，我们结合了企业行为理论和期望陷阱的概念，开发了一个分析预期和企业战略反应之间相互加强关系的跨期模型。我们认为，公司为达到分析师预期所做的努力增强了它们作为主要业绩基准的显著性，而具有讽刺意味的是，在这样做的过程中，它们在三个顺序相关的步骤中承受了来自分析师的更大压力——提高未来盈利预期，对未能达到更高预期施以更严厉的惩罚，以及对未能达到预期采取补偿行动。我们的分析使用了1986年至2015年间700多家最大的美国上市公司的数据，支持了我们的观点。我们的研究通过证明基于分析师预期的绩效反馈越来越重要，扩大了企业行为理论的范围。我们的研究还有助于对盈利压力的研究，阐明了为什么尽管企业努力减少或逃避压力，但压力仍然存在，并最终通过详细阐述外部预期的意外长期后果，为外部预期的战略管理文献做出了贡献。

9.Can Racial Diversity Attenuate Racial Discrimination in Service Interactions? Evidence from Cite-and-Release Decisions within Police Departments

种族多样性能减弱服务互动中的种族歧视吗?来自警察部门内部的证据

Jirs Meuris

Despite the belief that racial diversity in organizations will attenuate racial discrimination in service interactions, the extant literature suggests that it may often exacerbate discrimination by generating intergroup conflict. In this paper, I propose that the influence of racial diversity on racial discrimination in service interactions will depend upon (a) the level of interdependence within an organization and (b) whether an increase in diversity consists of a larger representation of a minority’s own racial group. To test my predictions, I combine interaction-level data covering approximately 200,000 cite-and-release decisions where suspects are either given a summons to attend court at a later date or transported to jail following arrest with longitudinal organization-level data from 93 police departments across the United States. Consistent with prior research, I found that minority suspects were less likely to be cited and released for the same offense relative to White suspects. Racial diversity among sworn officers in a police department exacerbated discrimination in cite-and-release decisions unless officers’ work roles were highly interdependent due to the adoption of community-oriented policing. Focusing on Black and Hispanic suspects, I observed this pattern regardless of whether an increase in racial diversity in the department was characterized by a larger representation of a minority suspect’s own racial group or other minority racial groups. Taken together, the findings suggest that diverse organizations can mitigate the emergence of intergroup conflict that exacerbates racial discrimination in service interactions by fostering interdependencies.

尽管人们相信组织中的种族多样性会减少服务互动中的种族歧视，但现有文献表明，它往往会通过产生群体间冲突而加剧歧视。在本文中，我提出，种族多样性对服务互动中种族歧视的影响将取决于(a)组织内部相互依赖的程度以及(b)多样性的增加是否包括少数民族自己种族群体的更大代表性。为了验证我的预测，我将涵盖约20万个传讯和释放决定的交互级数据与来自美国93个警察部门的纵向组织级数据结合起来，这些数据涵盖了嫌疑人要么被传唤在晚些时候出庭，要么在被捕后被送往监狱。与之前的研究一致，我发现与白人嫌疑人相比，少数族裔嫌疑人因同样的罪行被传讯和释放的可能性更小。警察部门宣誓警员的种族多样性加剧了传讯和释放决定中的歧视，除非警员的工作角色由于采用以社区为导向的警务而高度相互依赖。我关注的是黑人和西班牙裔嫌疑人，无论该部门种族多样性的增加是由于少数族裔嫌疑人自己的种族群体或其他少数族裔群体的比例增加，我都观察到了这种模式。综上所述，研究结果表明，多样化的组织可以通过促进相互依赖来缓解群体间冲突的出现，这种冲突加剧了服务互动中的种族歧视。

10.What Makes Resource Provision an Effective Means of Poverty Alleviation? A Resourcing Perspective

资源供给何以成为扶贫的有效手段?资源分配的角度

Christopher Sutter, Babita Bhatt , Israr Qureshi

Adequately addressing the grand challenge of poverty requires addressing resource scarcity. However, efforts to provide resources as a means of poverty alleviation have met with mixed success. We explore what makes resource provision effective as a means of poverty alleviation. We adopt a resourcing perspective, which focuses on the relationship between potential resources and schemas, or shared understandings, that shape how resources are used. Consistent with prior research, we find that schemas shape how resources are used in practice. However, we also find that who can access the resources is as consequential as how they are used. In exploring this issue, we identify a new category of schemas related not to use but to access, which we refer to as access schemas. We define access schemas as shared understandings regarding who can appropriately access potential resources. We find that different social groups have distinct schemas regarding access, and we identify three mechanisms—precedence, complementarity, and scaffolding—that shape the way that access schemas are enacted in resource-scarce settings. Our study contributes to the literature on grand challenges by clarifying the link between resource provision and resource use. We also contribute to the literature on resourcing by uncovering mechanisms that shape schema enactment in the presence of conflicting access schemas held by different social groups.

要充分解决贫困这一重大挑战，就必须解决资源短缺问题。然而，提供资源作为减轻贫穷手段的努力成败参半。我们将探讨是什么使资源提供成为一种有效的扶贫手段。我们采用资源分配视角，它关注潜在资源和模式(或共享理解)之间的关系，后者决定了资源的使用方式。与之前的研究一致，我们发现模式决定了资源在实践中的使用方式。然而，我们也发现，谁能访问资源与如何使用资源同样重要。在探索这个问题时，我们确定了一个新的模式类别，它与使用无关，而与访问有关，我们称之为访问模式。我们将访问模式定义为关于谁可以适当访问潜在资源的共享理解。我们发现，不同的社会群体在访问方面有不同的模式，我们确定了三种机制——优先级、互补性和脚手架——在资源稀缺的环境中形成访问模式的方式。我们的研究澄清了资源提供和资源使用之间的联系，为有关重大挑战的文献做出了贡献。我们还通过揭示在不同社会群体持有的冲突访问模式存在时形成模式制定的机制，为资源分配的文献做出了贡献。

11.When More Is Less: Explaining the Curse of Too Much Capital for Early-Stage Ventures

当多即是少:解释早期风险投资过多资本的诅咒

Alex Murray , Greg Fisher

This study examines how the mechanisms that entrepreneurs use to successfully mobilize financial resources influence the long-term viability of their ventures. Through an inductive analysis of crowdfunded consumer drone ventures, we empirically illustrate and theoretically conceptualize the link between the claims entrepreneurs use to mobilize resources and the actions entrepreneurs must then take to develop successful ventures. We induct a theoretical framework to suggest thatunbounded claims drive up the financial resources that ventures mobilize but reduce the likelihood of their long-term viability because of unmanageable technological complexity and uncontrolled organizational scaling, whereas bounded claims limit the financial resources that ventures mobilize but increase the likelihood of their long-term viability because of manageable technological complexity and controlled organizational scaling. We contribute to the resource mobilization literature by expounding on how the mechanisms that entrepreneurs use to mobilize financial resources are critical for ventures’ long-term viability over and above the amount of resources they mobilize. We contribute to the cultural entrepreneurship literature by linking research on claim making to the actions entrepreneurs must then take to deliver on their claims. Finally, we contribute to the literature on crowdfunding by connecting entrepreneurs’ campaign actions to the postcampaign outcome of on-time and on-scope product delivery.

本研究探讨企业家用来成功调动资金资源的机制如何影响其企业的长期生存能力。通过对众筹消费者无人机企业的归纳分析，我们从经验上说明并从理论上概念化了企业家用于动员资源的主张与企业家随后必须采取的行动之间的联系，从而发展成功的企业。我们引入了一个理论框架，表明无界索赔会增加企业调动的财务资源，但由于难以管理的技术复杂性和不可控的组织规模，降低了企业长期生存的可能性;而有界索赔会限制企业调动的财务资源，但由于可管理的技术复杂性和可控的组织规模，增加了企业长期生存的可能性。我们通过阐述企业家用来调动财务资源的机制如何对企业的长期生存能力至关重要，而不仅仅是他们调动的资源数量，从而为资源调动文献做出了贡献。我们为文化创业文献做出了贡献，方法是将提出主张的研究与企业家必须采取的行动联系起来，以实现他们的主张。最后，我们通过将企业家的活动与活动后及时和范围内产品交付的结果联系起来，为众筹的文献做出了贡献。

12.Driven to Distraction: The Unintended Consequences of Organizational Learning from Failure Caused by Human Error

被驱使分心:从人为错误导致的失败中组织学习的意外后果

Brian Park , David W. Lehman , Rangaraj Ramanujam

Research to date offers inconclusive and even conflicting evidence regarding whether organizations learn from failure. The present study sheds new light on this debate by highlighting a previously overlooked factor: whether the failure was caused by human error. In attempts to learn from failure, organizational members tend to focus on simplified representations of experiences and, in doing so, distinguish between failures attributed to human errors versus other causes. Our core thesis is that failures resulting from human error attract significant amounts of attentional resources, thereby depleting the limited stock of organizational attention otherwise directed at managing the risk of failures resulting from other causes. We hypothesize that this disproportionate allocation of attention simultaneously is associated withboth positive learning outcomes and negative side effects, specifically, a subsequent decrease in failures resulting from human error and also an increase in failures resulting from other causes. We also hypothesize that failures resulting from causes other than human error attract less organizational attention and, thus, lead to weaker learning outcomes. The proposed hypotheses were tested and supported using data from accident reports filed by natural gas pipeline operators with the U.S. Pipeline Hazardous Materials Safety Administration from 2002 to 2012. Additional analyses, including text analysis of accident reports, a series of simulations, and a supplementary study, point to organizational attention as the mechanism at play. Taken together, these findings suggest that organizational learning from failure caused by human error produces not only benefits, but also unintended consequences.

关于组织是否能从失败中吸取教训，迄今为止的研究提供了不确定甚至相互矛盾的证据。目前的研究通过强调一个以前被忽视的因素，为这场争论提供了新的视角:失败是否由人为错误引起。在尝试从失败中学习时，组织成员倾向于把重点放在经验的简化表述上，并在这样做时，区分人为错误和其他原因造成的失败。我们的核心论点是，由人为错误引起的失败会吸引大量的注意力资源，从而耗尽本应用于管理由其他原因引起的失败风险的有限的组织注意力。我们假设，这种不成比例的注意力分配同时与积极的学习结果和消极的副作用有关，具体来说，由人为错误导致的失败的后续减少，以及由其他原因导致的失败的增加。我们还假设，由人为错误以外的原因导致的失败吸引较少的组织关注，从而导致较弱的学习结果。通过使用2002年至2012年天然气管道运营商向美国管道危险材料安全管理局提交的事故报告数据，对提出的假设进行了验证和支持。附加的分析，包括事故报告的文本分析、一系列模拟和补充研究，指出组织注意是起作用的机制。综上所述，这些发现表明，组织从人为错误导致的失败中学习不仅会带来好处，还会产生意想不到的后果。

13.The Impact of Bribery Relationships on Firm Growth in Transition Economies

转轨经济中贿赂关系对企业成长的影响

Hyun Ju Jung , Seung-Hyun Lee

This study explores how bribery affects firm growth by focusing on the asymmetric dependence of firms on government resources and services. We conceptualize bribery as relationships through which bribery requests require firms to frequently interact with rent-seeking government officials. Through bribery relationships, such officials extort firms beyond the exchange of bribe money for preferential treatment, depriving acquiescing firms of time and effort and thereby imposing hidden costs that could be otherwise used for firm growth. We find that bribery relationships damage firm growth. Firm status such as introducing new products or not affects how rent-seeking government officials check on firms and calculate their extortion schemes in bribery relationships; bribery relationships damage firm growth more significantly for firms without new products. The damage of bribery relationships to firm growth is also contingent on institutional environments. Under pervasive corruption, firms in bribery relationships may increase their acquiescence to the extortion of rent-seeking government officials. In countries with high-quality governance, however, firms can depend on sound regulations and rules of law and government officials experience high moral costs of corruption. Thus, the negative effect of the bribery relationship on firm growth will be strengthened under pervasive corruption and weakened under high-quality governance. Using Business Environment and Enterprise Performance Survey and World Governance Indicators data for 28 Eastern European countries from 2002–2014, we demonstrate the multifaceted features of the bribery relationship and its interaction with country-level institutional environments.

本研究以企业对政府资源和服务的不对称依赖为重点，探讨贿赂对企业成长的影响。我们将贿赂定义为一种关系，通过这种关系，贿赂请求要求企业频繁地与寻租的政府官员互动。通过贿赂关系，这些官员在交换贿赂资金以获得优惠待遇之外对企业进行勒索，剥夺了默许的企业的时间和精力，从而强加了本可用于企业增长的隐性成本。我们发现贿赂关系会损害公司的成长。企业地位(如是否推出新产品)影响了寻租政府官员在贿赂关系中如何检查企业并计算其勒索计划;对于没有新产品的公司，贿赂关系对公司成长的损害更大。贿赂关系对企业成长的损害也取决于制度环境。在腐败普遍存在的情况下，有贿赂关系的公司可能会增加对寻租政府官员敲诈勒索的默许。然而，在高质量治理的国家，企业可以依赖健全的法规和规则，政府官员也会因腐败而付出高昂的道德代价。因此，在腐败泛滥的情况下，贿赂关系对企业成长的负面影响会增强，而在高质量的治理下，贿赂关系对企业成长的负面影响会减弱。利用2002-2014年28个东欧国家的商业环境和企业绩效调查以及世界治理指标数据，我们展示了贿赂关系的多面特征及其与国家层面制度环境的相互作用。

14.Who Gives Back? Evidence from India on Successful Entrepreneurial Exit and Involvement in Philanthropy

谁给予了回报?来自印度的成功企业家退出和参与慈善的证据

Leena Kinger Hans , Balagopal (Bala) Vissa

Although successful commercial entrepreneurship has beneficial consequences for the economy, it is unclear whether it is unequivocally good for broader society. We shed light on this macro issue by delving into a specific micropathway linking commercial entrepreneurship with positive spillover effects for broader society. We ask which commercial entrepreneurs who have experienced economic success through a financial exit event from their for-profit venture engage in philanthropy—defined as systematically stimulating, supporting, and shaping social change efforts—after exit. Utilizing the status characteristics framework, we conceptualize how hierarchical positions on ascribed social status characteristics (caste and gender in our setting) and achieved social status characteristics (eliteness of Indian tertiary educational attainment and overseas tertiary educational attainment in our setting) regulate successful commercial entrepreneurs’ subsequent involvement in philanthropy. We argue that successful commercial entrepreneurs from disadvantaged ascribed-status groups or privileged achieved-status groups are more likely to transition to philanthropic activities because they more keenly perceive the need for societal change and are also more motivated to take action. Quantitative analyses on a sample of 673 Indian entrepreneurs who experienced a successful financial exit from their for-profit venture during 2003–2013, supplemented by qualitative interviews, support our theorizing. We advance management research by highlighting founder transitions from successful commercial entrepreneurship to philanthropy as a hitherto understudied mechanism driving positive social change. We thus open up new research avenues around the less-studied exit stage of entrepreneurship that allows for the integration of currently unconnected literatures around corporate philanthropy, elites, entrepreneurship, and social impact.

尽管成功的商业创业对经济有益，但目前尚不清楚它是否对更广泛的社会有明确的好处。我们通过深入研究将商业创业与更广泛社会的积极溢出效应联系起来的特定微途径，阐明了这一宏观问题。我们要问的是，哪些商业企业家在退出营利性企业后，通过财务退出活动获得了经济上的成功，并在退出后参与了慈善活动(被定义为系统地刺激、支持和塑造社会变革努力)。利用地位特征框架，我们对归属社会地位特征(在我们的环境中是种姓和性别)和实现社会地位特征(在我们的环境中是印度高等教育成就的精英性和海外高等教育成就)上的等级地位如何调节成功的商业企业家随后参与慈善事业的概念。我们认为，来自弱势地位群体或特权地位群体的成功商业企业家更有可能转向慈善活动，因为他们更敏锐地意识到社会变革的必要性，也更有动力采取行动。对673名印度企业家样本的定量分析支持了我们的理论，这些企业家在2003-2013年期间从他们的营利性企业中成功地进行了财务退出，并辅以定性访谈。我们通过强调创始人从成功的商业企业家到慈善事业的转变，推动管理研究，这是迄今为止尚未被充分研究的推动积极社会变革的机制。因此，我们围绕较少研究的创业退出阶段开辟了新的研究途径，允许整合目前围绕企业慈善事业、精英、创业和社会影响的未关联文献。

15.Short-Selling Pressure and Workplace Safety: Curbing Short-Termism Through Stakeholder Interdependencies

卖空压力与工作场所安全:通过利益相关者相互依存抑制短期主义

Cuili Qian , Donal Crilly , Yupeng Lin , Keyuan Zhang , Rengong Zhang

We advance a multistakeholder framework that highlights the influence of stakeholders in tempering short-termist responses to capital market pressures. When firms face pressure from short sellers in the capital market, they sometimes shift attention to short-term stock performance and neglect critical investments that pay off in the long run. Relying on a quasi-natural experiment and establishment-level data on workplace injuries, we find that short-selling pressure causes an increase in employee injuries. Critically, however, the degree to which the response is short-termist depends on the salience of multiple stakeholders (analysts, shareholders, employees, and managers). We discuss the implications for understanding firms’ relations with their stakeholders and, particularly, how these stakeholders influence corporate responses to capital market pressures in ways that matter for long-term value creation. This study also contributes to strategy research by highlighting the downside of capital market deregulation.

我们提出了一个多利益相关者框架，强调利益相关者在缓和短期主义者对资本市场压力的反应方面的影响。当公司在资本市场上面临卖空者的压力时，他们有时会将注意力转移到短期股票表现上，而忽视那些从长期来看会有回报的关键投资。基于准自然实验和机构层面的工伤数据，我们发现卖空压力会导致员工伤害的增加。然而，关键的是，这种反应在多大程度上是短视的，取决于多个利益相关者(分析师、股东、员工和经理)的重要性。我们讨论了理解公司与其利益相关者关系的含义，特别是这些利益相关者如何以对长期价值创造重要的方式影响公司对资本市场压力的反应。本研究还通过强调资本市场放松管制的不利因素，为战略研究做出了贡献。

16.Creativity and the Arts of Disguise: Switching Between Formal and Informal Channels in the Evolution of Creative Projects

创造性和伪装的艺术:创造性项目演变中正式和非正式渠道之间的切换

Charalampos Mainemelis , Evy Sakellariou

The extant creativity literature suggests that creative projects evolve in organizations through either formal or informal channels. This article advances creativity research beyond these two limited single-channel conceptualizations by exploring why and how creative projects evolve by accessing both formal and informal channels. In a study of a creative communications campaign in a subsidiary of a Fortune 500 multinational corporation, we find that switching from the formal to the informal channel allows the creative project to bypass organizational barriers and secure strategic autonomy, whereas switching from the informal to the formal channel allows the creative project to preserve its legitimacy and secure resources. Our analysis reveals that these bidirectional channel-switching transitions are propelled by four versatile subprocesses: selective concealment; strategic use of time; exploitation of hierarchical and knowledge gaps; and shared wins framing. Drawing on our findings, we develop a dual-channel process model of creative evolution that provides a missing theoretical link between, on the one hand, the variable conditions that impel creative projects to follow at times formal and at other times informal channels, and on the other hand, the differential mechanisms through which the two directions of channel switching allow creative projects to further evolve.

现有的创造性文献表明，创造性项目通过正式或非正式渠道在组织中发展。这篇文章通过探索创造性项目为什么以及如何通过访问正式和非正式渠道来发展，从而推动创造力研究超越这两种有限的单一渠道概念。在对一家财富500强跨国公司子公司的创造性沟通活动的研究中，我们发现，从正式渠道切换到非正式渠道可以让创意项目绕过组织障碍，获得战略自主权，而从非正式渠道切换到正式渠道则可以让创意项目保持其合法性并获得资源。我们的分析表明，这些双向信道切换过渡是由四个通用子过程推动的:选择性隐藏;有策略地利用时间;利用等级和知识差距;分享胜利的框架。根据我们的发现，我们开发了一个创造性进化的双通道过程模型，它提供了一个缺失的理论链接，一方面，推动创造性项目有时遵循正式渠道，有时遵循非正式渠道的可变条件，另一方面，渠道切换的两个方向允许创造性项目进一步进化的差异机制。

17.Bridging the Gap: Evidence from the Return Migration of African Scientists

弥合差距:来自非洲科学家回流移民的证据

Caroline Viola Fry

Although prior research has highlighted the benefits that accrue to brokers in innovation networks, much less attention is devoted to understanding who benefits from associating with a broker. This study focuses on the impact of associating with a specific kind of broker—a core/periphery bridge—that is, one that spans central and peripheral actors. I argue that actors associated with a core/periphery bridge benefit more when they have no central connection, or are outsiders in the network, due to their greater need for sponsorship from the broker. I explore this idea in the context of the return migration of American-trained scientists to African institutions, who span the core and the periphery of the global scientific network. I evaluate the impact of their return on the publication outcomes of nonmigrant scientists based in African institutions and find that following the arrival of a returnee in their institution, the nonmigrants who are not already connected to scientists in top global institutions have a greater publication output through improved access to central knowledge and connections. The findings contribute to a better understanding of how brokers can influence innovation systems more broadly.

尽管先前的研究强调了创新网络中经纪人的收益，但很少有人关注谁会从与经纪人的合作中受益。本研究的重点是与特定类型的经纪人(核心/外围桥梁)联系的影响，即跨越中心和外围参与者的桥梁。我认为，当与核心/外围桥接相关的参与者没有中心连接，或者是网络中的局外人时，他们会受益更多，因为他们更需要经纪人的支持。我在美国培训的科学家返回非洲机构的背景下探讨了这一想法，这些科学家横跨全球科学网络的核心和外围。我评估了他们的回归对在非洲机构工作的非移民科学家发表成果的影响，发现在回归者到达他们的机构后，那些与全球顶级机构的科学家没有联系的非移民通过改善对中心知识和联系的获取，有了更大的发表产出。这些发现有助于更好地理解经纪人如何更广泛地影响创新系统。

18.Learning in Temporary Teams: The Varying Effects of Partner Exposure by Team Member Role

临时团队中的学习:团队成员角色对伙伴暴露的不同影响

Song-Hee Kim , Hummy Song , Melissa A. Valentine

In many workplaces, temporary teams convene to coordinate complex work, despite team members having not worked together before. Most related research has found consistent performance benefits when members of temporary teams work together multiple times (team familiarity). Recent work in this area broke new conceptual ground by instead exploring the learning and performance benefits that team members gain by being exposed to many new partners (partner exposure). In contrast to that new work that examined partner exposure between team members who are peers, in this paper, we extend this research by developing and testing theory about the performance effects of partner exposure for team members whose roles are differentiated by authority and skill. We use visit-level data from a hospital emergency department and leverage the ad hoc assignment of attendings, nurses, and residents to teams and the round-robin assignment of patients to these teams as our identification strategy. We find a negative performance effect of both nurses’ and resident trainees’ partner exposure to more attendings and of attendings’ and nurses’ exposure to more residents. In contrast, both attendings and residents experience a positive impact on performance from working with more nurses. The respective effects of residents working with more attendings and with more nurses is attenuated on patient cases with more structured workflows. Our results suggest that interactions with team members in decision-executing roles, as opposed to decision-initiating roles, is an important but often unrecognized part of disciplinary training and team learning.

在许多工作场所，临时团队聚集在一起协调复杂的工作，尽管团队成员以前没有在一起工作过。大多数相关研究发现，临时团队的成员在一起多次工作(团队熟悉度)会带来持续的绩效提升。最近在这一领域的工作突破了新的概念，而是探索了团队成员通过接触许多新伙伴而获得的学习和绩效收益(伙伴接触)。与之前研究团队成员之间伙伴关系暴露的新工作相反，在本文中，我们通过开发和测试关于伙伴关系暴露对根据权威和技能区分角色的团队成员的绩效影响的理论，扩展了这一研究。我们使用来自医院急诊科的访问级别数据，并利用主治医生、护士和住院医生的临时分配到团队，以及将患者循环分配到这些团队作为我们的识别策略。我们发现，护士和住院实习学员的伴侣接触更多的主治医生，以及主治医生和护士接触更多的住院医生，都对绩效有负面影响。相比之下，主治医生和住院医生都经历了与更多护士一起工作对表现的积极影响。住院医生与更多的主治医生和更多的护士一起工作的各自影响在更结构化的工作流程的患者案例中减弱。我们的研究结果表明，与决策执行角色的团队成员互动，而不是决策发起角色，是纪律培训和团队学习中重要但往往未被认识到的部分

19.Triadic Advocacy Work

三合一宣传工作

Summer Rachel Jackson , Katherine Cissel Kellogg

Scholars of street-level bureaucracy and institutional research focus primarily on the relationships between advocates and their larger bureaucratic and social systems, assuming that advocates have little need to satisfy their beneficiaries. We find otherwise in our two-year ethnographic study of public defenders advocating for disadvantaged clients in interactions with district attorneys. In our analysis of 82 advocacy opportunities, we demonstrate that, when existing bureaucratic and social systems put beneficiaries at a disadvantage, advocates may be concerned about managing fraught relationships with their beneficiaries in addition to navigating barriers within the bureaucratic and social systems. We further show a tension between the two; ironically, engaging in advocacy work on behalf of beneficiaries can lead to beneficiary mistrust. As a result, advocates engage intriadic advocacy work—managing impressions with their beneficiaries while also influencing powerful actors within the system on behalf of these same beneficiaries. Understanding the process by which advocates navigate this tension is critical to understanding beneficiary outcomes. By reconceptualizing advocacy work as a triadic process among advocate, bureaucratic system, and beneficiary rather than as a dyadic process between advocate and bureaucratic system, this paper develops new theory about how advocates can attempt to garner benefits that advance the rights and opportunities of the disadvantaged.

研究街头官僚机构和制度研究的学者主要关注倡导者与其更大的官僚和社会系统之间的关系，假设倡导者几乎不需要满足他们的受益人。我们在为期两年的民族志研究中发现，在与地方检察官的互动中，公共辩护律师为弱势客户辩护。在我们对82个倡导机会的分析中，我们证明，当现有的官僚和社会系统将受益人置于不利地位时，倡导者除了在官僚和社会系统内克服障碍外，还可能关心如何管理与受益人的紧张关系。我们进一步展示了两者之间的紧张关系;具有讽刺意味的是，代表受益人从事宣传工作可能会导致受益人不信任。因此，倡议者从事三位一体的倡导工作——管理对受益人的印象，同时也代表这些受益人影响系统内的强大行动者。理解倡导者驾驭这种紧张关系的过程对理解受益结果至关重要。通过将倡导工作重新定义为倡导者、官僚系统和受益人之间的三元过程，而不是倡导者和官僚系统之间的二元过程，本文提出了关于倡导者如何试图获得促进弱势群体权利和机会的利益的新理论。

20.The Evaluation of Founder Failure and Success by Hiring Firms: A Field Experiment

招聘公司对创始人失败与成功的评估:一个现场实验

Tristan L. Botelho , Melody Chang

Organizations tout the importance of innovation and entrepreneurship. Yet, when hiring it remains unclear how they evaluate entrepreneurial human capital—namely, job candidates with founder experience. How hiring firms evaluate this experience—and especially how this evaluation varies by entrepreneurial success and failure—reveals insights into the structures and processes within organizations. Organizations research points to two perspectives related to the evaluation of founder experience: Former founders may be advantaged, due to founder experience signaling high-quality capabilities and human capital, or disadvantaged, due to concerns related to fit and commitment. To identify the dominant class of mechanisms driving the evaluation of founder experience, it is important to consider how these evaluations differ, depending on whether the founder’s venture failed or succeeded. To isolate demand-side mechanisms and hold supply-side factors constant, we conducted a field experiment. We sent applications varying the candidate’s founder experience to 2,400 software engineering positions in the United States at random. We find that former founders received 43% fewer callbacks than nonfounders and that this difference is driven by older hiring firms. Further, this founder penalty is greatest for former successful founders, who received 33% fewer callbacks than former failed founders. Our results highlight that mechanisms related to concerns about fit and commitment, rather than information asymmetry about quality, are most influential when hiring firms evaluate former founders in our context.

各个组织都在鼓吹创新和创业的重要性。然而，在招聘时，他们仍不清楚如何评估创业人力资本——即具有创始人经验的求职者。招聘公司如何评估这种经验——尤其是这种评估如何随着创业成功和失败而变化——揭示了对组织内部结构和流程的洞察。组织研究指出了与创始人经验评估相关的两个角度:前创始人可能是有利的，因为创始人经验标志着高质量的能力和人力资本;或者是不利的，因为与适合性和承诺有关的担忧。为了确定推动创始人经验评估的主要机制类别，重要的是要考虑这些评估如何不同，取决于创始人的企业是失败还是成功。为了隔离需求侧机制并保持供给侧因素不变，我们进行了实地实验。我们随机向美国2400个软件工程职位发送了不同创始人经验的申请。我们发现，与非创始人相比，曾经创立过公司的人接到的面试电话要少43%，这种差异是由老牌招聘公司造成的。此外，这种对创始人的惩罚在曾经成功的创始人身上表现得最为严重，他们接到的回访电话比曾经失败的创始人少33%。我们的研究结果强调，在我们的背景下，招聘公司在评估前创始人时，最具影响力的机制是对适合度和承诺的担忧，而不是关于质量的信息不对称。