词根学习7：flect；post；mal；cata；prot/proto

太忙了一直没更新，非常抱歉！

31『FLECT』

FLECT comes from flectere, the Latin verb meaning "to bend." The root sometimes takes the form flex-. Things that are flexible can be bent, and when you flex a muscle, you're usually bending a limb-which, as a trainer at the gym will tell you, requires the use of flexor muscles.

FLECT来自拉丁语动词flectere，意思是“弯曲”。词根有时采用flex-的形式。柔韧的东西可以弯曲，当你弯曲肌肉时，你通常是在弯曲肢体，正如健身房的教练告诉你的那样，这需要使用屈肌。

deflect   [dɪˈflekt]

v.偏转;转移;(尤指击中某物后)偏斜,转向,使偏斜,使转向;引开;阻止(某人做已决定做的事)

To turn aside, especially from a straight or fixed course.

转向一边，尤指从直线或固定路线上转向一边。

The stealth technology used on bombers and fighter jets works by deflecting radar energy, making them "invisible."

轰炸机和战斗机上使用的隐形技术通过偏转雷达能量，使其“隐形”。

Use of the physical meaning of deflect is common. Thus, a soccer goalie's save might involve deflecting the ball rather than catching it, and workers wear eye shields to deflect tiny particles flying out of machines. But the nonphysical meaning may be even more common. A Hollywood actress might deflect criticism about her personal life by giving lavishly to charity, for example, and we’ve all tried to change the subject to deflect a question we really didn’t want to answer.

偏转常用于其物理意义。因此，足球守门员的扑救可能涉及偏转球，而不是接球，工作人员戴上眼罩来避开从机器中飞出的微小颗粒。但非物理意义可能更为普遍。例如，一位好莱坞女演员可能会通过向慈善机构慷慨捐款来转移对她个人生活的批评，而我们都试图改变话题，以转移一个我们真的不想回答的问题。

reflective   [rɪˈflektɪv]

adj.反思的;沉思的;深思的;(指物体表面)反射热的，反光的;典型的;代表性的;体现状态(或本质)的

(1) Capable of reflecting light, images, or sound waves. (2) Thoughtful.

(1) 能够反射光、图像或声波的。(2) 深思熟虑的。

He likes action movies and going out drinking with friends, but when you get to know him you realize he's basically reflective and serious.

他喜欢动作片，喜欢和朋友出去喝酒，但当你了解他时，你会意识到他实际上是深沉和认真的。

Reflective people are people who reflect on things-that is, look back at things that have been done or said in order to think calmly and quietly about them. Most reflective people would agree with Socrates that (as he told the jury that would soon sentence him to death) "The unexamined life is not worth living." Reflective people tend to be a bit philosophical and intellectual. But almost everyone has reflective moods; gazing into a fireplace or a campfire seems to do it to almost everyone.

善于反思的人是指对事情进行反思的人，也就是说，回顾已经做过或说过的事情，以便平静、安静地思考这些事情。大多数善于思考的人都会同意苏格拉底的观点，即(正如他告诉向随后判处他死刑的陪审团所说的)“未经检验的生活不值得活下去。”善于反思的人往往有点哲学和智慧。但几乎每个人都有反思的情绪；凝视壁炉或篝火似乎几乎是每个人沉思的方式。

genuflect   [ˈdʒenjuflekt]

vi.(在教堂礼拜时)跪拜，单膝跪拜;卑躬屈膝

To kneel on one knee and then rise as an act of respect.

单膝跪下，然后起立以示尊重。

At religious shrines in China, pilgrims may not only genuflect but actually lie down flat on the ground.

在中国的宗教圣地，朝圣者不仅可能下跪，而且可能平趴在地上。

Genuflection, which contains the root genu-, “knee,” has long been a mark of respect and obedience. King Arthur’s Knights of the Round Table genuflected not only when he knighted them but whenever they greeted him formally, and this custom remains in countries today that are still ruled by royalty. In some churches, each worshipper is expected to genuflect whenever entering or leaving a pew on the central aisle.

Genufelection包含词根genu，“膝盖”，长期以来一直是尊重和服从的标志。亚瑟王的圆桌骑士团不仅在他封他们为爵士时，而且在他们正式向他致意时都会下跪，这种习俗至今仍存在于仍由皇室统治的国家。在一些教堂，每个礼拜者无论何时进入或离开中央过道的长椅，都要下跪。

inflection   [ɪnˈflekʃn]

n.(尤指词尾的)屈折变化;语调的抑扬变化

(1) A change in the pitch, tone, or loudness of the voice. (2) The change in form of a word showing its case, gender, number, person, tense, mood, voice, or comparison.

(1) 音高、音调或音量的变化。(2) 一个单词的形式变化，显示其大小写、性别、数字、人称、时态、语气、语气或对比。

She couldn’t understand her grandfather’s words, but she knew from his inflection that he was asking a question.

她听不懂祖父的话，但从他的语调中她知道他在问一个问题。

Changing the pitch, tone, or loudness of our words are ways we communicate meaning in speech, though not on the printed page. A rising inflection at the end of a sentence generally indicates a question, and a falling inflection indicates a statement, for example. Another way of inflecting words is by adding endings: -s to make a noun plural, -ed to put a verb in the past tense, -er to form the comparative form of an adjective, and so on.

改变单词的音高、音调或响度是我们在言语中传达意思的方式，尽管不是在印刷品上。例如，句子结尾的音调上升通常表示提问，下降表示陈述。另一种变换单词的方法是添加词尾：-s使名词成为复数，-ed使动词成为过去时，-er形成形容词的比较形式，等等。

32『POST』

POST comes from a Latin word meaning "after" or "behind." A postscript (or PS) is a note that comes after an otherwise completed letter, usually as an afterthought. Postpartum refers to the period following childbirth, with any related events and complications. To postdate a check is to give it a date after the day it was written.

POST来自一个拉丁单词，意思是“随后”或“在后面”。附言(或PS)是一个在信件正文以后的注释，通常是事后的想法。产后是指分娩后的一段时间，包括任何相关事件和并发症。在支票上注明日期，就是在支票写出来的那一天之后给它一个日期。

posterior   [pɑːˈstɪriər]

adj.在后面的;在后部的

n.臀部;屁股

Situated toward or on the back; rear.

背对的；后方的

In a human posterior and dorsal can both refer to the back, but in a fish posterior refers to the tail area.

在人类中，后部和背部都可以指背部，但在鱼类中，后部指尾部区域。

Posterior comes from the Latin word posterus, meaning "coming after." Posterior is often used as a technical term in biology and medicine to refer to the back side of things, and is the opposite of anterior, which refers to the front side. For example, as more people took up running as a sport, doctors began to see an increase in stress fractures along the posterior as well as the anterior surface of the lower leg bones. In some technical fields, posterior may mean “later.” When used as a noun, posterior simply means “buttocks.”

后部来自拉丁语单词posterus，意思是“在后面”。后部通常用作生物学和医学中的一个技术术语，指的是事物的背面，与前部相反，前者指的是正面。例如，随着越来越多的人将跑步作为一项运动，医生开始发现小腿骨骼后部和前部表面的应力性骨折增加。在一些技术领域中，posterior可能意味着“以后”。当用作名词时，posterior的意思只是“臀部”。

posthumous   [ˈpɑːstʃəməs]

adj.死后发生(或做、出版等)的

(1) Published after the death of the author. (2) Following or happening after one's death.

(1) 作者去世后出版。(2) 死后的，死后发生的。

Though Van Gogh scarcely sold a single painting during his lifetime, he rose to posthumous fame as one of the world's great artists.

尽管梵高生前几乎没有卖出过一幅画，但他作为世界上最伟大的艺术家之一，在死后声名鹊起。

Posthumous fame is fame that comes a little late. In fact, its original meaning in English is "born after the death of the father." Bill Clinton was the posthumous son of a father who died in an automobile accident. The word is now mostly used of artistic works that appear after the death of the artist, or the changing reputation of a dead artist. Such posthumous works as Herman Melville's Billy Budd, the diary of Anne Frank, and almost all the poetry of Emily Dickinson have become legendary, and in each case they had a major influence on the writer's reputation.

后名声是指来得有点晚的名声。事实上，它在英语中的原意是“父亲死后出生”。比尔·克林顿是一位死于车祸的父亲的遗腹子。这个词现在主要用于艺术家去世后出现的艺术作品，或已故艺术家不断变化的声誉。赫尔曼·梅尔维尔(Herman Melville)的《比利·巴德》(Billy Budd)、安妮·弗兰克(Anne Frank)的日记以及艾米丽·迪金森(Emily Dickinson)几乎所有的诗歌等遗作都已成为传奇，每一部都对作家的声誉产生了重大影响。

postmodern   [ˌpoʊstˈmɑːdərn]

adj.后现代主义的;受后现代主义影响的

Having to do with a movement in architecture, art, or literature that is a reaction against modernism and that reintroduces traditional elements and techniques in odd contexts as well as elements from popular culture.

与建筑、艺术或文学运动有关，这是对现代主义的反应，在奇怪的背景下重新引入传统元素和技术，以及流行文化中的元素。

The postmodern AT&T building in New York, with the "Chippendale" top that reminds viewers of an antique dresser, aroused a storm of criticism.

纽约的后现代AT&T大楼，其齐尔德本式顶部让观众想起了一个古董梳妆台，引发了一场批评风暴。

With its prefix post-, postmodern describes a movement that has reacted against modernism. Modernism, dating from around the start of the 20th century, represented a sharp break from 19th-century styles. But in the 1970s architects began to be dissatisfied with the stark simplicity of most modern architecture and began including in their mostly modern designs such traditional elements as columns, arches, and keystones and sometimes startling color contrasts such as might have come from advertising and pop culture. In art and literature, as in architecture, postmodernism often seems to be making fun of tradition, especially by denying that there's any real distinction between serious and popular art or writing. Wherever it has shown up, postmodernism has been greeted with a mixture of approval, disapproval, and sometimes amusement.

后现代主义以post-为前缀，描述了一场反对现代主义的运动。现代主义可以追溯到20世纪初左右，代表着与19世纪风格的急剧决裂。但在20世纪70年代，建筑师们开始对大多数现代建筑的纯粹简洁感到不满，并开始在他们大部分的现代设计中加入柱子、拱门和钥匙石等传统元素，有时还会出现令人震惊的颜色对比，比如可能来自广告和流行文化。在艺术和文学中，就像在建筑中一样，后现代主义似乎经常取笑传统，尤其是否认严肃和流行的艺术或写作之间有任何真正的区别。无论后现代主义在哪里出现，都会受到赞同、反对，有时甚至是调笑。

postmortem   [poʊstˈmɔrtɛm]

n.尸体检验;验尸;尸体解剖;(尤指对失败或出差错的事情的)事后分析，事后检讨

adj.死后的;验尸的

(1) Occurring after death. (2) Following the event.

(1) 死后发生的。(2) 事件之后。

In their postmortem discussion of the election, the reporters tried to explain how the polls and predictions could have been so completely wrong.

在对选举的事后讨论中，记者们试图解释民意调查和预测是如何完全错误的。

Post mortem is Latin for "after death." In English, postmortem refers to an examination, investigation, or process that takes place after death. A postmortem examination of a body (often simply called a postmortem) is often needed to determine the time and cause of death; the stiffening called rigor mortis is one postmortem change that doctors look at to determine when death occurred. Today we’ve come to use postmortem to refer to any examination or discussion that takes place after an event.

验尸是拉丁语中“死后”的意思。在英语中，死后是指死后进行的检查、调查或过程。通常需要对尸体进行尸检(通常简称为尸检)来确定死亡时间和原因；被称为尸僵的僵硬是一种尸检变化，医生会通过观察来确定死亡发生的时间。今天，我们用postmortem来指代事件发生后进行的任何检查或讨论。

33『MAL』

MAL comes from a Latin word meaning "bad." A malady is a bad condition-a disease or illness-of the body or mind. Malpractice is bad medical practice. Malodorous things smell bad. And a malefactor is someone guilty of bad deeds.

MAL来自拉丁语，意思是“坏”。疾病是一种糟糕的状况——身体或精神的疾病。不当行为是一种不良的医疗行为。有臭味的东西闻起来很臭。而犯罪分子是指犯有不良行为的人。

malevolent   [məˈlevələnt]

adj.恶毒的;有恶意的;有坏心肠的

Having or showing intense ill will or hatred.

具有或表现出强烈的恶意或仇恨。

Captain Ahab sees Moby Dick not simply as a whale but as a powerfully malevolent foe.

亚哈船长认为白鲸不仅仅是一头鲸鱼，而是一个恶毒的敌人。

Malevolence runs deep. Malevolent enemies have bitter and lasting feelings of ill will. Malevolent racism and bigotry can erupt in acts of violence against innocent people. Malevolence can also show itself in hurtful words, and can sometimes be seen in something as small as an angry look or gesture.

恶意根深蒂固。恶毒的敌人有苦涩而持久的恶意。针对无辜人民的暴力行为可能会爆发恶毒的种族主义和偏执。恶意也可以表现在伤人的话语中，有时可以表现在愤怒的眼神或手势等微小的东西中。

malicious   [məˈlɪʃəs]

adj.恶意的;恶毒的

Desiring to cause pain, injury, or distress to another.

渴望给他人带来痛苦、伤害。

The boys didn't take the apples with any malicious intent; they were just hungry and didn't know any better.

男孩们没有恶意地拿走苹果；他们只是饿了，什么都不知道。

Malicious and malevolent are close in meaning, since both refer to ill will that desires to see someone else suffer. But while malevolent suggests deep and lasting dislike, malicious usually means petty and spiteful. Malicious gossipers are often simply envious of a neighbor's good fortune. Vandals may take malicious pleasure in destroying and defacing property but usually don’t truly hate the owners. Malice is an important legal concept, which has to be proved in order to convict someone of certain crimes such as first-degree murder.

Malicious和malevolent的意思相近，因为两者都指的是希望看到别人受苦的恶意。malevolent意味着深深而持久的厌恶，而malicious通常意味着卑鄙和恶毒。malicious的流言蜚语者往往只是嫉妒邻居的好运。破坏者可能会以破坏和污损财产为乐，但通常不会真正憎恨业主。恶意是一个重要的法律概念，必须证明这一点，才能判定某人犯有一级谋杀等特定罪行。

malign   [məˈlaɪn]

vt.(公开地)诽谤，毁谤，中伤

adj.有害的;引起伤害的

To make harsh and often false or misleading statements about.

对…做出严厉的、经常是虚假的或误导性的陈述。

Captain Bligh of the Bounty may be one of the most unjustly maligned figures in British naval history.

赏金猎人布莱船长可能是英国海军历史上最不公正的诽谤人物之一。

Malign is related to verbs like defame, slander, and libel. The person or group being maligned is the victim of false or misleading statements, even if the maligner isn't necessarily guilty of deliberate lying. Someone or something that's frequently criticized is often said to be "much maligned," which suggests that the criticism isn’t entirely fair or deserved. Malign is also an adjective, and writes often refer to a person's malign influence. The very similar malignant, which used to be a common synonym of malign, today tends to describe dangerous medical conditions, especially cancerous tumors.

Malign与defame、slander、libel(都是诽谤)等动词有关。被诽谤的个人或团体是虚假或误导性陈述的受害者，即使诽谤者不一定故意撒谎。经常被批评的人或事经常被说成是“备受诽谤”，这表明这种批评并不完全公平或应得。恶意也是一个形容词，写作中经常提到一个人的恶意影响。非常相似的恶性，过去是恶性的常见同义词，现在倾向于描述危险的医疗状况，尤其是癌性肿瘤。

malnourished   [ˌmælˈnɜːrɪʃt]

adj.营养不良的

Badly or poorly nourished.

营养不良。

When they finally found the children in the locked cabin, they were pale and malnourished but unharmed.

当他们终于在锁着的小屋里找到孩子们时，他们脸色苍白，营养不良，但没有受伤。

Malnourished people can be found in all types of societies. Famine and poverty are only two of the common causes of malnutrition. In wealthier societies, malnutrition is often the result of poor eating habits. Any diet that fails to provide the nutrients needed for health and growth can lead to malnutrition, and some malnourished people are actually fat.

营养不良的人在所有类型的社会中都有。饥荒和贫困只是营养不良的两个常见原因。在富裕社会，营养不良往往是不良饮食习惯造成的。任何不能提供健康和生长所需营养的饮食都可能导致营养不良，而一些营养不良的人实际上是肥胖的。

34『CATA』

CATA comes from the Greek kata, one of whose meanings was "down." A catalogue is a list of items put down on paper, and a catapult is a weapon for hurling missiles down on one's enemies.

CATA来自希腊语kata，其含义之一是“向下”。目录是写在纸上的物品清单，弹射器是向敌人投掷导弹的武器。

cataclysm   [ˈkætəklɪzəm]

n.大灾变;(突然降临的)大灾难;大动乱

(1) A violent and massive change of the earth's surface. (2) A momentous event that results in great upheaval and often destruction.

(1) 地球表面剧烈而巨大的变化。(2) 一个重大事件，导致巨大的动荡和经常的破坏。

World War I was a great cataclysm in modern history, marking the end of the old European social and political order.

第一次世界大战是现代史上的一场大灾难，标志着旧的欧洲社会和政治秩序的终结。

The -clysm part of cataclysm comes from the Greek word meaning "to wash," so cataclysm's original meaning was "flood, deluge," and especially Noah's Flood itself. A cataclysm causes great and lasting changes. An earthquake or other natural disaster that changes the landscape is one kind of cataclysm, but a violent political revolution may also be a cataclysmic event. Many cataclysms could instead be called catastrophes.

Cataclysm的-clysm部分来自希腊语，意思是“洗涤”，所以大灾难的原意是“洪水”，尤其是诺亚洪水本身。大灾难会带来巨大而持久的变化。地震或其他改变景观的自然灾害是一种大灾难，但暴力的政治革命也可能是一种灾难性事件。许多灾难可以被称为catastrophes。

catacomb   [ˈkætəˌkoʊm]

n.(尤指城市下方的古代)地下墓窟

An underground cemetery of connecting passageways with recesses for tombs.

一种地下墓地，由连接通道和坟墓凹槽组成。

The early Christian catacombs of Rome provide a striking glimpse into the ancient past for modern-day visitors.

罗马早期的基督教地下墓穴为现代游客提供了一个对古代历史的惊人一瞥。

About forty Christian catacombs have been found near the roads that once led into Rome. After the decline of the Roman empire these cemeteries were forgotten, not to be rediscovered until 1578. Catacomb has come to refer to different kinds of underground chambers and passageways. The catacombs of Paris are abandoned stone quarries that were not used for burials until 1787. The catacombs built by a monastery in Palermo, Sicily, for its deceased members later began accepting bodies from outside the monastery; today you may wander through looking at hundreds of mummified corpses propped against the catacomb walls, dressed in tattered clothes that were once fashionable.

在曾经通往罗马的道路附近发现了大约四十座基督教地下墓穴。罗马帝国衰落后，这些墓地被遗忘，直到1578年才被重新发现。Catacomb指的是不同类型的地下室和通道。巴黎的地下墓穴是废弃的采石场，直到1787年才用于埋葬。西西里岛巴勒莫的一座修道院为其已故成员建造的地下墓穴后来开始接受修道院外的尸体；今天，你可能会看到数百具靠在地下墓穴墙上的干尸，他们穿着曾经很时髦的破旧衣服。

catalyst   [ˈkætəlɪst]

n.催化剂;促使变化的人;引发变化的因素

(1) A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction or lets it take place under different conditions. (2) Someone or something that brings about or speeds significant change or action.

(1) 一种加速化学反应或使其在不同条件下发生的物质。(2) 带来或加速重大变化或行动的人或事。

The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand in Sarajevo in 1914 turned out to be the catalyst for World War I.

1914年，斐迪南大公在萨拉热窝遇刺，成为第一次世界大战的催化剂。

Chemical catalysts are substances that, in very small amounts, can bring about important chemical changes in large quantities of material. The catalytic converter in your car's exhaust system, for instance, uses tiny amounts of platinum to swiftly convert the engine's dangerous gases to carbon dioxide and water vapor. And it's easy to see how the meaning of catalyst could broaden to include nonchemical situations. We can now say, for example, that the Great Depression served as the catalyst for such important social reforms as Social Security.

化学催化剂是指极少量的物质，可以对大量材料产生重要的化学变化。例如，汽车排气系统中的催化转化器使用少量铂，将发动机的危险气体迅速转化为二氧化碳和水蒸气。很容易看出催化剂的含义是如何扩大到包括非化学情况的。例如，我们现在可以说，大萧条是社会保障等重要社会改革的催化剂。

catatonic   [ˌkætəˈtɑːnɪk]

adj.紧张症的;紧张性的

(1) Relating to or suffering from a form of schizophrenia. (2) Showing an unusual lack of movement, activity, or expression.

(1) 与精神分裂症有关或患有某种形式的精神分裂症。(2) 缺乏动作、活动或表情的。

After an hour, extreme boredom had produced a catatonic stupor in those of the audience who were still awake.

一个小时后，极度无聊使那些仍然清醒的观众产生了紧张性昏迷。

Catatonia is primarily a form of the terrible mental disease known as schizophrenia, though it may show up in patients with a variety of other mental conditions. A common symptom is extreme muscular rigidity; catatonic patients may be "frozen" for hours or even days in a single position. Its causes remain mysterious. Serious though the condition is, most nondoctors use catatonic humorously to describe people who seem incapable of moving or changing expression.

紧张症主要是一种被称为精神分裂症的可怕精神疾病，尽管它可能会出现在患有各种其他精神疾病的患者身上。一种常见的症状是肌肉极度僵硬；紧张症患者可能会在一个单一的位置上被“冷冻”数小时甚至数天。其原因仍然很神秘。尽管情况很严重，但大多数非医生都幽默地使用紧张性紧张来形容那些似乎无法移动或改变表情的人。

35『PROT/PROTO』

PROT/PROTO comes from Greek and has the basic meaning "first in time" or "first formed." Protozoa are one-celled animals, such as amoebas and paramecia, that are among the most basic members of the biological kingdom. A proton is an elementary particle that, along with neutrons, can be found in all atomic nuclei. A protoplanet is a whirling mass of gas and dust that astronomers believe may someday become a planet.

PROT/PROTO来自希腊语，基本意思是“时间第一”或“第一次形成”。原生动物是单细胞动物，如变形虫和草履虫，是生物王国最基本的成员之一。质子是一种基本粒子，与中子一起，可以在所有原子核中找到。原行星是一团旋转的气体和尘埃，天文学家认为它们有朝一日可能会成为一颗行星。

protagonist   [prəˈtæɡənɪst]

n.主角;(戏剧、电影、书的)主要人物;主人公;主要参与者;(政策、运动的)倡导者;拥护者

The main character in a literary work.

文学作品中的主角。

Macbeth is the ruthlessly ambitious protagonist of Shakespeare's play, but it is his wife who pulls the strings.

麦克白是莎士比亚戏剧中野心勃勃的主人公，但幕后操纵者是他的妻子。

Struggle, or conflict, is central to drama. The protagonist or hero of a play, novel, or film is involved in a struggle of some kind, either against someone or something else or even against his or her own emotions. So the hero is the "first struggler," which is the literal meaning of the Greek word protagonistes. A character who opposes the hero is the antagonist, from a Greek verb that means literally "to struggle against.”

斗争或冲突是戏剧的核心。戏剧、小说或电影的主人公或主人公参与了某种斗争，要么是与某人或其他人的斗争，甚至是与他或她自己的情绪的斗争。因此，英雄是“第一个奋斗者”，这是希腊语单词protaginates的字面意思。反对英雄的角色就是反对者，来自希腊动词，字面意思是“与之斗争”。

protocol   [ˈproʊtəkɑːl]

n.协议;议定书;礼仪;外交礼节;条约草案;(协议或条约的)附件;(数据传递的)规程;规约;科学实验计划

v.拟(草案)；(把…)记入议定书

(1) A code of diplomatic or military rules of behavior. (2) A set of rules for the formatting of data in an electronic communications system.

(1) 外交或军事行为准则。(2) 电子通信系统中数据格式化的一组规则。

The guests at the governor's dinner were introduced and seated according to the strict protocol governing such occasions.

州长晚宴上的客人是按照严格的礼仪介绍和就座的。

The basic meaning of proto- is a little harder to follow in this word. Protocol comes from a Greek word for the first sheet of a papyrus roll. In English, protocol originally meant "a first draft or record," and later specifically the first draft of a diplomatic document, such as a treaty. The "diplomatic" connection led eventually to its current meaning of "rules of behavior." Someone wearing Bermuda shorts and sandals to a state dinner at the White House would not be acting "according to protocol,” and royal protocol forbids touching the queen of England except to shake her hand. But protocol is also now used for other sets of rules, such as those for doing a scientific experiment or for handling computer data.

proto的基本含义在这个词中有点难以理解。Protocol来自希腊语，意思是纸莎草卷的第一张纸。在英语中，议定书最初的意思是“初稿或记录”，后来特别是外交文件(如条约)的初稿。这种“外交”联系最终导致了它现在的“行为规则”的含义。穿着百慕大短裤和凉鞋参加白宫国宴的人不会“按照礼仪”行事，王室礼仪禁止触摸英国女王，除非与她握手。但该协议现在也被用于其他规则集，例如用于进行科学实验或处理计算机数据的规则集。

protoplasm   [ˈproʊtəplæzəm]

n.原生质

The substance that makes up the living parts of cells.

构成细胞活性部分的物质。

A mixture of organic and inorganic substances, such as protein and water, protoplasm is regarded as the physical basis of life.

原生质是蛋白质和水等有机和无机物质的混合物，被视为生命的物理基础。

After the word protoplasm was coined in the mid-19th century for the jellylike material that is the main substance of a cell, it began to be used widely, especially by scientists and others who imagined that the first life-forms must have arisen out of a great seething protoplasmic soup. Since protoplasm includes all the cell's living material, inside and outside the nucleus, it is a less useful scientific word today than more precise terms such as cytoplasm, which refers only to the living material outside the nucleus. But many remain fascinated by the image of that soup bubbling away as the lightning flashes and the volcanoes erupt.

原生质一词在19世纪中期被创造出来，用来指作为细胞主要物质的果冻状物质，之后它开始被广泛使用，尤其是科学家和其他人，他们认为第一种生命形式一定是从沸腾的原生质汤中产生的。由于原生质包括细胞核内外的所有细胞活性物质，因此与细胞质等更精确的术语相比，原生质在今天是一个用处不大的科学术语，细胞质仅指细胞核外的活性物质。但许多人仍然对闪电和火山爆发时汤冒泡的画面着迷。

prototype   [ˈproʊtətaɪp]

n.原型;雏形;最初形态

(1) An original model on which something is patterned. (2) A first, full-scale, usually working version of a new type or design.

(1) 一种原始模型，上面有图案。(2) 一种新型或设计的第一种、全尺寸的、通常可工作的版本。

There was great excitement when, after years of top-secret development, the prototype of the new Stealth bomber first took to the skies.

经过多年的绝密研制，新型隐形轰炸机的原型机首次升空，人们非常兴奋。

A prototype is someone or something that serves as a model or inspiration. A successful fund-raising campaign can serve as a prototype for future campaigns, for example, and the legendary Robin Hood is the prototypical honorable outlaw, the inspiration for countless other romantic heroes. But the term is perhaps most widely used in the world of technology; every new "concept car," for example, starts off as a unique prototype.

原型是指作为模型或灵感来源的人或物。例如，一场成功的筹款活动可以作为未来竞选活动的原型，而传奇的罗宾汉是典型的光荣的亡命之徒，是无数其他浪漫英雄的灵感来源。但这个词可能在科技界使用最为广泛；例如，每一辆新的“概念车”一开始都是一辆独特的原型车。