Ontology of Language

Definition(s)_to communicate (external language)/ to be symbols (internal language)

1. Edward Hall's definition: the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols. 

2. Sapir Edward's definition: a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.

3. A simple definition: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

4. Other definition(s): Saussure; Heidegger; Chomsky; Chinese linguistics

Design features: 

① arbitrariness & prescription

② duality & hierarchy

③ creavitity & recursiveness & productivity

④ displacement

⑤ cultural transmission(文化传递性)

⑥ value & motivation(价值性 & 理据性)

Design features are exclusive to human.

Human language can be divided into main language(主语言) and paralanguage(副语言), with companion language(伴语言)belonging not to human language.

Functions ①Jakobson ②Halliday

→informative; interpersonal; performative; recreational; phatic communion; metalingual

Of Linguistics

Basic Branches: Phonetics; Phonology; Morphology; Syntax; Semantics; Pragmatics

Macrolinguistics: Psycholinguistics; Sociolinguistics; Anthropological Linguistics; Computional Linguistics; Cultural Linguistics; Cognitive Linguistics.

Important Distinctions (previously given by Ferdinand de Saussure)

① prescriptive / descriptive

(The former is a command by linguists. The latter is a statement based on the dynamic phenomena. It is known to all that language as a whole changes gradually.)

② synchronic / diachronic

③ langue / parole

④ competence / performance

(The former is an ideal fiction only for a scientific theoretical model of language. The latter is an actual thing that we can feel.)

⑤ spoken language / written language

⑥ analogy / exception

⑦ information surplus / information shortage

⑧ closure / openness

Classification of Language(3 standards)

① morphological/typological classification

② genealogical/historical classification 

③ geographical classification

Theories and Schools of West

Ancient times: Discussion on "Name and Object" by Ancient Greek school

Middle Ages: universal rationalism grammar

Modern times（近代/现代）

① historical comparative linguistics(internal fitting method) → external fitting method based on historical hierarchy analysis

② Junggramatiker → diffusion theory

③ Structuralist Lingustics → functional transformation

Saussure

The Prague School

American Structuralism: Boas&Sapir; Bloomfield; Harris&Hockett

The London School: Malinowski; Firth; Halliday

④ Transfomational-Generative Grammar(TG)

The Classical Theory; The Standard Theory; The Extended Standard Theory; The Goverment and Binding Theory; The Minimalist Program

History of Chinese Linguistics

Ancient times: "Xiao Xue" is traditional Chinese philology

Qianjia School epitomized a generalization of "Xiao xue".

Modern times(1898~1930/40~1950/60~1980s~2000s)

① Early stage: Ma Jianzhong; Li Jinxi

② Early thought of sinicization: Chen Wangdao; Fang Guangtao; Wang Li; Lv Shuxiang; Gao Mingkai; Zhao Yuanren; Luo Changpei; Li Fanggui; Li Rong; Lu Zhiwei; Zhou Youguang

Gao's Language is the first  monograph of systematic Chinese language theory.

③ Booming stage

Appliaction of American descriptive grammar (Zhao Yuanren、Ding Shengshu)

3 important grammatical problems: 

word classifications; 

criteria for sentence analysis; 

subject & object

④ Introduction and Restruction: 3 planes; cultural perspective

⑤ New thought of sinicized theories

P.S. Overseas Chinese Linguistics

① Bernhard Karlgren——Ancient Chinese phonology

② William, S.Y. W.——diffusion theory

③ 太田辰夫——Modern Chinese grammar

Hotspots and Prospects of Chinese Linguistics

① To develop tranditional Chinese philology into a modern branch of science

② To develop theories according to Chinese linguistic facts

③ To foster multilingual learning and translingual study in virtue of technology

④ Three planes theory of Chinese grammar

⑤ Grammaticalization & Lexicalization

⑥ Cognitive perspective

Language Survey

① Social survey of language  e.g. Labov→social layer of /r/

② Field investigation of language

Linguistic Criticism

It is affects the pace of linguistics developing.

Noam Chomsky is a perfect example who once criticized the authority.