【简译】文艺复兴时期欧洲的印刷业革命

The arrival in Europe of the printing press with moveable metal type in the 1450s CE was an event which had enormous and long-lasting consequences. The German printer Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1398-1468 CE) is widely credited with the innovation and he famously printed an edition of the Bible in 1456 CE. Beginning with religious works and textbooks, soon presses were churning out all manner of texts from Reformation pamphlets to romantic novels. The number of books greatly increased, their cost diminished and so more people read than ever before. Ideas were transmitted across Europe as scholars published their own works, commentaries on ancient texts, and criticism of each other. Authorities like the Catholic Church took exception to some books and censored or even burned them, but the public's attitude to books and reading was by then already changed forever.

          公元1450年，带有可移动金属字体的印刷机传入欧洲，这是一个具有巨大和持久影响的事件。德国印刷商约翰内斯·古腾堡（约公元1398-1468年）被广泛认为是这项创新的功臣，他在公元1456年印刷了一版《圣经》。从宗教作品和教科书开始，很快印刷厂就开始生产各种文本——从宗教改革的小册子到浪漫小说。书籍的数量大大增加，印刷成本降低，因此比以前有更多的人开始阅读书籍。随着学者们发表自己的作品、对古代文献的评论以及相互之间的批评，思想在整个欧洲得到了传播。天主教会等当局对一些书籍不以为然，对其进行审查甚至焚烧，但公众对书籍和阅读的态度在那时已经发生了彻底的改变。

The impact of the printing press in Europe included:

1.       A huge increase in the volume of books produced compared to handmade works.

2.       An increase in the access to books in terms of physical availability and lower cost.

3.       More authors were published, including unknown writers.

4.       A successful author could now earn a living solely through writing.

5.       An increase in the use and standardisation of the vernacular as opposed to Latin in books.

6.       An increase in literacy rates.

7.       The rapid spread of ideas concerning religion, history, science, poetry, art, and daily life.

8.       An increase in the accuracy of ancient canonical texts.

9.       Movements could now be easily organised by leaders who had no physical contact with their followers.

10.   The creation of public libraries.

11.   The censorship of books by concerned authorities.

          印刷机在欧洲的影响包括：

1.       与手工作品相比，书籍的产量大幅增加。

2.       从实物供应和较低的成本来看，获得书籍的机会增加了。

3.       更多作者的书籍被出版，包括无名作家。

4.       一个成功的作家现在可以完全通过写作谋生。

5.       相对于拉丁文，白话文在书籍中的使用和标准化程度有所提高。

6.       识字率的提高。

7.       有关宗教、历史、科学、诗歌、艺术和日常生活的思想迅速传播。

8.       古代典籍的准确性提高。

9.       现在，与追随者没有实际接触的领导人可以很容易地组织起运动。

10.   公共图书馆的建立。

11.   有关当局对书籍的审查。

约 翰 内 斯 · 古 腾 堡

The invention of the movable metal type printer in Europe is usually credited to the German printer Johannes Gutenberg. However, there are other claims, notably the Dutch printer Laurens Janszoon Coster (c. 1370-1440 CE) and two other early German printers, Johann Fust (c. 1400-1465 CE) and his son-in-law Peter Schöffer (c. 1425-1502 CE). There is, too, evidence that movable metal type printers had already been invented in Korea in 1234 CE in the Goryeo Kingdom (918-1392 CE). Chinese Buddhist scholars also printed religious works using moveable type presses; the earliest ones used woodblocks during the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE). Whether the idea of moveable type presses spread via merchants and travellers from Asia to Europe or if the invention by Gutenberg was spontaneous is still a point of debate amongst scholars. In any case, like most technologies in history, the invention likely sprang from a cumulation of elements, ideas, and necessity involving multiple individuals across time and space.

          在欧洲，金属活字印刷机的发明通常归功于德国印刷商约翰内斯·古腾堡。然而，也有其他说法，是荷兰印刷商劳伦斯·扬斯宗·科斯特（约公元1370-1440年）和其他两位早期德国印刷商约翰·福斯特（约公元1400-1465年）和他的女婿彼得·舍费尔（约公元1425-1502年）。也有证据表明，在公元1234年的高丽王国（公元918-1392年）就已经发明了金属活字印刷机。中国的佛教学者也使用活字印刷机印刷宗教作品；最早的活字印刷机出现在中国的宋代（公元960-1279年）。活字印刷机的技术是通过商人和旅行者从亚洲传播到欧洲，还是古腾堡自己发明的，这在学者中仍有争议。无论如何，与历史上的大多数技术一样，这项发明很可能是由跨越时间和空间的多种因素、想法和必要性的累积而产生的。

Gutenberg began his printing experiments sometime in the 1440s CE, and he was able to establish his printing firm in Mainz in 1450 CE. Gutenberg's printer used Gothic script letters. Each letter was made on a metal block by engraving it into the base of a copper mould and then filling the mould with molten metal. Individual blocks were arranged in a frame to create a text and then covered in a viscous ink. Next, a sheet of paper, at that time made from old linen and rags, was mechanically pressed onto the metal blocks. Gutenberg's success in putting all these elements together is indicated by his printed edition of the Latin Bible in 1456 CE.

          古腾堡在公元1440年的某个时候开始了他的印刷实验。公元1450年，他在美因茨建立了自己的印刷厂。古腾堡的印刷机使用哥特式字母。每个字母都是在金属块上刻出来的，制造方法是把它刻在铜模的底部，然后用熔化的金属填充铜模。各个字母块被排列在一个框架中，形成一个文本，然后覆盖在粘稠的墨水中。接下来，一张当时由旧亚麻布和破布制成的纸被机械地压在金属块上。古腾堡成功地将所有元素结合在一起，这一点从他在公元1456年印刷的拉丁文圣经中可以看出。

The new type of presses soon appeared elsewhere, notably with two Germans, Arnold Pannartz (d. 1476 CE) and Conrad Sweynheym (aka Schweinheim, d. 1477 CE). This pair established their printing press in 1465 CE in the Benedictine monastery of Subiaco. It was the first such press in Italy. Pannartz and Sweynheym moved their operation to Rome in 1467 CE and then Venice in 1469 CE, which already had a long experience of printing such things as playing cards. There were still some problems such as the lack of quality compared to handmade books and the drab presentation in respect to beautifully colour-illustrated manuscripts. Also, there were sometimes errors seen in the early printed editions and these mistakes were often then repeated in later editions. However, the revolution into how and what people read had well and truly begun.

           这种新型的印刷机很快就出现在其他地方，有两个德国人，阿诺德·潘纳茨（公元1476年）和康拉德·斯韦恩海姆（又名施魏因海姆，公元1477年）。这对夫妇于公元1465年在苏比亚科的本笃会修道院建立了他们的印刷厂。这是意大利第一次使用这样的印刷机。潘纳茨和斯韦恩海姆于公元1467年将他们的业务转移到罗马，然后于公元1469年又转移到威尼斯，威尼斯已经有了印刷扑克牌等物件的长期经验。当时还存在一些问题，如与手工书相比，印刷机印刷的质量不高；与精美的彩色插图手稿相比，表现手法单调。此外，在早期的印刷版本中有时会出现错误，这些错误往往会在后来的版本中重复出现。然而，对人们阅读方式和内容的革命已经真正开始。

印 刷 品

There was already a well-established demand for books from the clergy and the many new universities and grammar schools which had sprung up across Europe in the late medieval period. Indeed, traditional book-makers had struggled to keep up with demand in the first half of the 15th century CE, with quality often being compromised. This demand for religious material, in particular, was one of the main driving forces behind the invention of the printing press. Scholars had access to manuscripts in private and monastic libraries, but even they struggled to find copies of many texts, and they often had to travel far and wide to get access to them. Consequently, religious works and textbooks for study would dominate the printing presses throughout the 15th century CE. It is important to remember, though, that handmade books continued to be produced long after the printing press had arrived and, as with many new technologies, there were people still convinced that the flimsy printed book would never really catch on.

          在中世纪晚期，神职人员与欧洲各地兴起的许多新大学和文法学校对书籍的需求上升。事实上，在公元15世纪上半叶，传统的制书商一直在努力跟上需求，但质量经常受到影响。尤其是社会对宗教书籍的需求，是推动印刷术发明的主要力量之一。学者们可以在私人图书馆和修道院图书馆获得手稿，但即使他们也很难找到许多文本的副本，而且他们往往需要远赴各地才能获得这些文本。因此，宗教作品和学习用的教科书在整个公元15世纪的印刷厂中占据主导地位。不过，重要的是，在印刷术到来后的很长一段时间里，手工书仍在继续生产，就像许多新技术一样，有些人仍然相信脆弱的印刷书不会真正流行起来。

The availability of things to read for people in general massively increased thanks to printing. Previously, the opportunity to read anything at all was rather limited. Ordinary folks often had little more than church notice boards to read. The printing press offered all sorts of new and exciting possibilities such as informative pamphlets, travel guides, collections of poems, romantic novels, histories of art and architecture, cooking and medicinal recipes, maps, posters, cartoons, and sheet music. Books were still not as cheap as today in terms of price compared to income, but they were only around one-eighth of the price of a handmade book. With printing matter being varied and affordable, people who could not previously do so now had a real motive to read and so literacy rates increased. Further, printed books were themselves a catalyst for literacy as works were produced that could be used to teach people how to read and write. At the end of the medieval period still only 1 in 10 people at most were able to read extended texts. With the arrival of the printing press, this figure would never be as low again.

          由于印刷机的出现，一般人可以阅读的东西大量增加。在此之前，阅读任何东西的机会都相当有限。普通人往往只有教堂的告示牌可以阅读。印刷机提供了各种新颖的和令人兴奋的可能性，如信息小册子、旅行指南、诗集、浪漫小说、艺术和建筑史、烹饪和药方、地图、海报、漫画和乐谱。与收入相比，书籍的价格仍然不像今天这样便宜，但它们的价格只有手工书的八分之一左右。由于印刷品种类繁多且价格低廉，以前不能阅读的人现在有了真正的动机去阅读，因此识字率提高。此外，印刷书籍本身也是识字的催化剂，因为所生产的作品可以用来教人们如何阅读和书写。在中世纪末期，最多只有十分之一的人能够阅读扩展文本。随着印刷机的到来，这个数字再也不会那么低了。

信 息 的 传 播

Soon, a new boost to the quantity of printed material came with the rise of the humanist movement and its interest in reviving literature from ancient Greece and Rome. Two printers, in particular, profited from this new demand: the Frenchman Nicholas Jensen (1420-1480 CE) and the Italian Aldus Manutius (c. 1452-1515 CE). Jensen innovated with new typefaces in his printing shop in Venice, including the easy-to-read roman type (littera antiqua/lettera antica) and a Greek font which imitated manuscript texts. Jensen printed over 70 books in the 1470s CE, including Pliny's Natural History in 1472 CE. Some of these books had illustrations and decorations added by hand to recapture the quality of older, entirely handmade books.

          很快，随着人文主义运动的兴起及其对复兴古希腊和古罗马文学的兴趣，印刷品的数量得到了新的提升。有两个印刷商尤其从这种新的需求中获益：法国人尼古拉斯·延森（公元1420-1480年）和意大利人阿尔杜斯·马努提斯（约公元1452-1515年）。延森在他位于威尼斯的印刷厂里进行了新字体的创新，包括易于阅读的罗马字体（littera antiqua/lettera antica）和模仿手稿文本的希腊字体。延森在公元1470年代印刷了70多本书，包括公元1472年的普林尼的《自然史》。其中一些书的插图和装饰是手工添加的，以重现古老的、完全手工制作的书籍的质量。

Meanwhile Manutius, also operating in Venice, specialised in smaller pocket editions of classical texts and contemporary humanist authors. By 1515 CE, all major classical writers were available in print, most in multiple editions and many as collections of complete works. In addition, printed classical texts with identical multiple copies in the hands of scholars across Europe could now be easily checked for accuracy against source manuscripts. Handmade books had often perpetuated errors, omissions, and additions made by individual copyists over centuries, but now, gradually, definitive editions of classical works could be realised which were as close as possible to the ancient original. In short, printed works became both the cause and fruit of an international collective scholarship, a phenomenon which would reap rewards in many other areas from astronomy to zoology.

           同时，马努提乌斯也在威尼斯经营，专门生产古典文献和当代人文主义作家的小型袖珍版本。到公元1515年，所有主要的古典作家都有了印刷品，大多数都有多个版本，许多都是完整作品的集合。此外，欧洲各地的学者手中都有相同的多本印刷品，现在可以很容易地对照原始手稿检查其准确性。手工制作的书籍往往会延续几个世纪以来个别抄写者的错误、遗漏和补充，但现在，古典作品的最终版本可以逐渐实现，并尽可能地接近古代原作。简而言之，印刷作品既是国际集体学术研究的原因，也是其成果，这一现象将在从天文学到动物学的许多其他领域获得回报。

There was, too, a drive to print more books thanks to the Reformists who began to question the Catholic Church's interpretation of the Bible and its stranglehold on how Christians should think and worship. The Bible was one of the priorities to have translated into vernacular languages, for example German (1466 CE), Italian (1471 CE), Dutch (1477 CE), Catalan (1478 CE), and Czech (1488 CE). Reformists and humanists wrote commentaries on primary sources and argued with each other in print, thereby establishing an invisible web of knowledge and scholarship across Europe. Even the letters written between these scholars were published. As religious and academic issues raged, so the debating scholars fuelled the production of yet more printed works in a perpetuating cycle of the printed word. Ordinary folks, too, were roused by arguments presented in printed materials so that groups of like-minded individuals were able to quickly spread their ideas and organise mass movements across multiple cities such as during the German Peasants' War of 1525 CE.

          由于改革派开始质疑天主教会对《圣经》的解释及其对基督徒的思想和崇拜方式的束缚，也出现了印刷更多书籍的动力。《圣经》是被翻译成白话文的重点之一，例如德语（公元1466年）、意大利语（公元1471年）、荷兰语（公元1477年）、加泰罗尼亚语（公元1478年）和捷克语（公元1488年）。改革派和人文主义者对原始资料撰写评论，并通过印刷品相互争论，从而在整个欧洲建立了一个无形的知识与学术网络。甚至这些学者之间写的信也被出版了。随着宗教和学术问题的激化，争论不休的学者们推动了更多印刷品的生产，使印刷品的周期不断延长。普通人也被印刷品中的论点所唤醒，因此志同道合的群体能够迅速传播他们的思想，并在多个城市组织群众运动，如公元1525年的德国农民战争。

There were, too, plenty of works for non-scholars. As more people began to read, so more collections of poems, novellas, and romances were printed, establishing Europe-wide trends in literature. These secular works were often written in the vernacular and not the Latin scholars then preferred. Finally, many books included a number of woodcut engravings to illustrate the text. Collections of fine prints of famous paintings, sculptures, and frescoes became very popular and helped to spread ideas in art across countries so that a painter like Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528 CE) in Germany could see what Raphael (1483-1520 CE) was up to in Italy.

          也有大量的作品供非学者阅读。随着越来越多的人开始阅读，更多的诗集、小说和浪漫小说被印刷出来，建立了欧洲范围内的文学潮流。这些世俗作品往往是用白话文写的，而不是当时学者们喜欢的拉丁文。最后，许多书籍都包括一些木刻版画来说明文字。名画、雕塑和壁画的精美印刷品集变得非常流行，有助于在各国之间传播艺术理念，因此，像阿尔布雷希特·丢勒（公元1471-1528年）这样的德国画家可以看到意大利的拉斐尔（公元1483-1520年）的作品。

蓬 勃 发 展 的 产 业

As a consequence of all this demand, those printers who had survived the difficult early years were now booming. Cities across Europe began to boast their own printing firms. Places like Venice, Paris, Rome, Florence, Milan, Basel, Frankfurt, and Valencia all had well-established trade connections (important to import paper and export the final product) and so they became excellent places to produce printed material. Some of these publishers are still around today, notably the Italian company Giunti. Each year, major cities were producing 2-3,000 books every year. In the first decade of the 1500s CE, it is estimated 2 million books were printed in Europe, up to 20 million by 1550 CE, and around 150 million by 1600 CE. There were over half a million works by the Reformist Martin Luther (1483-1546 CE) printed between 1516 and 1521 CE alone. Into the 16th century CE, even small towns now had their own printing press.

          由于这些需求，那些在早期困难时期幸存下来的印刷商现在正在蓬勃发展。欧洲各地的城市开始夸耀自己的印刷公司。威尼斯、巴黎、罗马、佛罗伦萨、米兰、巴塞尔、法兰克福和瓦伦西亚等地都有完善的贸易关系（对进口纸张和出口最终产品非常重要），因此它们成为生产印刷品的绝佳场所。其中一些出版商今天仍然存在，特别是意大利的Giunti公司。每年，主要城市都要生产2-3,000本书。在公元15世纪的头十年，据估计欧洲印刷了200万本书，到公元1550年达到2000万本，到公元1600年约为1.5亿本。仅在公元1516年至1521年期间，改革者马丁·路德（公元1483-1546年）的作品就印刷了50多万册。进入公元16世纪，即使是小城镇现在也有自己的印刷厂。

Besides established authors, many publishers helped new authors (men and women) print their works at a loss in the hope that a lucrative reprint run would finally bring in a profit. The typical print run for a first edition was around 1,000 copies although this depended on the quality of the book as editions ranged from rough paper pocket-sizes to large vellum (calfskin) folio editions for the connoisseur. The smaller size of most printed books compared to handmade volumes meant that habits of reading and storing books changed. Now a desk was no longer required to support large books and one could read anywhere. Similarly, books were no longer kept horizontally in chests but stacked vertically on shelves. There were even odd inventions like the book wheel on which several books could be kept open and easily consulted simultaneously by turning the wheel, especially useful for research scholars. As readers accumulated their books and built up impressive private collections, so many bequeathed these to their city when they died. In this way, within 50 years of the printing press' invention, public libraries were formed across Europe.

          除了知名作者，许多出版商还帮助新作者（男性和女性）亏本印刷他们的作品，希望通过有利可图的再版来最终获得利润。初版的印刷量一般在1000册左右，但这取决于书的质量，因为版本从粗糙的纸质袖珍版到供鉴赏家使用的大型牛皮纸（小牛皮）版不等。与手工制作的书籍相比，大多数印刷书籍的尺寸较小，这意味着阅读和储存书籍的习惯发生了变化。现在不再需要一张桌子来支撑书，人们可以在任何地方阅读。同样，书籍也不再被水平地放在箱子里，而是垂直地堆放在书架上。甚至还有一些奇怪的发明，如书轮，在书轮上可以打开几本书，通过转动书轮就可以同时查阅，这对研究学者特别有用。由于读者积累了他们的书籍并建立了令人印象深刻的私人收藏，所以许多人在去世时将这些书遗赠给他们的城市。就这样，在印刷术发明后的50年内，整个欧洲都形成了公共图书馆。

Printed works became so common, they helped enormously to establish the reputations, fame and wealth of certain writers. The Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus (c. 1469-1536 CE) is perhaps the best example, one of the first authors to make a living solely through writing books. There were, though, some threats to authors and printers. One of the biggest problems was copyright infringement because it was next to impossible to control what went on beyond a particular city. Many books were copied and reprinted without permission, and the quality of these rip-offs was not always very good.

          印刷品变得如此普遍，对某些作家的声誉、名声和财富的建立起到了极大的帮助。荷兰学者伊拉斯谟（Desiderius Erasmus，约公元1469-1536年）也许是最好的例子，他是第一批只靠写书谋生的作家之一。不过，作者和印刷商也受到了一些威胁。最大的问题之一是侵犯版权，因为几乎不可能控制某个城市以外的情况。许多书未经许可就被复制和重印，而这些翻版的质量并不总是很好。

审 查 制 度 与 印 刷 禁 书

All of these developments were not welcomed by all people. The Catholic Church was particularly concerned that some printed books might lead people to doubt their local clergy or even turn away from the Church. Some of these works had been first released in manuscript form a century or more earlier but they were now enjoying a new wave of popularity thanks to printed versions. Some new works were more overtly dangerous such as those written by Reformists. For this reason, in the mid-16th century CE, lists were compiled of forbidden books. The first such list, the 1538 CE Italian Index of Prohibited Books, was issued by the Senate of Milan. The Papacy and other cities and states across Europe soon followed the practice where certain books could not be printed, read, or owned, and anyone caught doing so was, at least in theory, punished. Further measures included checking texts before they were published and the more careful issuing of licenses to printers.

          这些发展并非受到所有人的欢迎。天主教会特别担心，一些印刷书籍可能会导致人们怀疑他们当地的神职人员，甚至背离教会。其中一些作品在一个多世纪前就以手稿形式首次发行，但由于印刷版本的出现，它们现在正享受着新一轮的流行。有些新作品的危险性更为明显，如改革派所写的作品。为此，在公元16世纪中叶，人们编制了被禁止的书籍清单。第一份这样的名单，即公元1538年的《意大利禁书索引》，是由米兰参议院发布的。教廷和欧洲其他城市和州很快效仿这种做法，禁止印刷、阅读或拥有某些书籍，任何被发现这样做的人至少在理论上都会受到惩罚。进一步的措施包括在出版前对文本进行检查，以及更谨慎地向印刷商发放许可证。

Institutionalised censorship, then, became a lasting reality of publishing from the mid-16th century CE as rulers and authorities finally began to wake up to the influence of printed matter. Authorities banned certain works or even anything written by a particular author. The De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, 1543 CE) by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543 CE) was added to the forbidden list for putting the Sun at the centre of the solar system instead of the Earth. The Decameron (c. 1353 CE) by the Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375 CE) was added to the list because of its vulgarity. The works of Niccolò Machiavelli were added for his political cynicism.

          随着统治者和当局最终开始意识到印刷品的影响，制度化的审查制度从公元16世纪中期开始成为出版业的一个持久现实。当局禁止某些作品，甚至禁止某位作者的任何作品。波兰天文学家尼古拉斯·哥白尼（Nicolaus Copernicus，公元1473-1543年）的De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium（论天体的旋转，公元1543年）因将太阳置于太阳系的中心而不是地球而被列入禁书名单。意大利作家乔瓦尼·薄伽丘（Giovanni Boccaccio，公元1313-1375年）的《十日谈》（约公元1353年）因其庸俗性而被列入名单。尼可洛·迪·贝尔纳多·代·马基维利的作品因其政治愤世嫉俗而被加入名单。

The worst works singled out for censorship were burned in public displays, the most infamous being the bonfire of the 'vanities' orchestrated by Girolamo Savonarola, a Florentine Dominican friar, in 1497 CE. On the other hand, some works were eventually allowed to be published (or republished) if they were appropriately edited or had offending parts removed. Most printers did not fight this development but simply printed more of what the authorities approved of. There was certainly, though, an underground market for banned books.

          被挑出来审查的最糟糕的作品会被公开焚烧，最臭名昭著的是佛罗伦萨多米尼加修士吉罗拉莫·萨沃纳罗拉在公元1497年策划的 "虚荣 "篝火晚会。另一方面，一些作品最终被允许出版（或再版），如果它们经过适当的编辑或删除了违规的部分。大多数印刷商没有与这一发展作斗争，而只是更多地印刷当局批准的作品。不过，当然也有地下禁书市场。

Many intellectuals, too, were equally dismayed at the availability of certain texts to a wide and indiscriminate audience. The Divine Comedy (c. 1319 CE) by the Italian poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321 CE) was thought by some to contain certain moral, philosophical, and scientific ideas too dangerous for non-scholars to contemplate. Similarly, some scholars lamented the challenge the vernacular language was posing to Latin, what they considered the proper form of the written word. The tide had turned already, though, and local vernaculars became more standardised thanks to editors trying to make their material more comprehensible to the greatest number of readers. An improved use of punctuation was another consequence of the printed word.

          许多知识分子也同样对某些文本被广泛地、不加区别地提供给读者感到失望。一些人认为，意大利诗人但丁·阿利吉耶里（公元1265-1321年）的《神曲》（约公元1319年）包含某些道德、哲学和科学思想，对非学者来说太危险了，令人无法思考。同样，一些学者对白话文给拉丁文带来的挑战感到遗憾，他们认为拉丁文是书面文字的正确形式。不过，趋势已经发生了变化，由于编辑们努力使他们的材料更容易被最多的读者理解，当地的白话文变得更加标准化了。改进标点符号的使用是印刷文字发展的另一个结果。

Another delicate area was instruction books. Printers produced trade manuals on anything from architecture to pottery and here again, some people, especially guilds, were not so happy that detailed information on skilled crafts - the original 'trade secrets' - could be revealed to anyone with the money to buy a book. Finally, the printed word sometimes posed a challenge to oral traditions such as the professionals who recited songs, lyrical poetry, and folk tales. On the other hand, many authors and scholars transcribed these traditions into the printed form and so preserved them for future generations up to the present day and beyond.

          另一个微妙的领域是指导书籍。印刷商制作了从建筑到陶器的贸易手册，在这里，有些人，特别是行会，对关于熟练工艺的详细信息——最初的 "商业秘密"——可以透露给任何有钱买书的人感到不高兴。印刷品有时会对口述传统构成挑战，如专业人士朗诵歌曲、抒情诗和民间故事。另一方面，许多作者和学者将这些传统转录为印刷品，从而为后代保留了这些传统，直到今天与未来。

参考书目：

Blockmans, Wim & Hoppenbrouwers, Peter. Introduction to Medieval Europe 300–1500. Routledge, 2017.

Campbell, Gordon. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Renaissance. Oxford University Press, 2019.

Eugene F. Rice Jr. & Anthony Grafton. The Foundations of Early Modern Europe, 1460-1559. W. W. Norton & Company, 1994.

Holmes, George. The Oxford History Of Medieval Europe. Oxford University Press, U.S.A., 2001.

J. R. Hale (ed). The Thames & Hudson Dictionary of the Italian Renaissance. Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1985.

Rundle, David. The Hutchinson Encyclopedia of the Renaissance. Hodder Arnold, 2000.

Wyatt, Michael. The Cambridge Companion to the Italian Renaissance. Cambridge University Press, 2014.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

          驻意大利的历史作家。他的主要兴趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神话和发现所有文明的共同思想。他拥有政治哲学硕士学位，是《世界历史百科全书》的出版总监。

原文网址：

https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1632/the-printing-revolution-in-renaissance-europe/