[戴]10-1儿童语言习得
【习得与教学】中包括[戴-10][戴-11][胡-11],相互独立,记忆为主。
[戴-10]语言习得
ⅠTheories of child language acquisition.
ⅡCognitive development in child language development.
ⅢLanguage environment and the Critical Period Hypothesis.
ⅣStages in child language development.
ⅤAtypical development.
我对这一章节的理解是——【选填判断】要么是基础常识判断,要么出自需要背默的核心句,所以均视为【论述题】处理,下面展示的内容大都需要背诵与默写,含汉语!
<10-1>Theories of Child Language Acquisition.
【名词解释】——语言习得(Language Acquisition)是指儿童习得母语的过程,即如何逐渐理解和说其社区语言。
Language Acquisition refers to the child's acquisition of his mother tongue, i. e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.
[在简答和论述题中可扩充]——
&儿童习得母语快、不费劲,相比较成人而言。
&关键期内习得语言,否则学起来很费劲。
&语言环境影响语言习得,良好的环境能积极影响语言习得。
[up解释]——上述【可扩充】的内容是从教材中提炼的,简单省事、方便记忆。
关于这部分的原文可以看,但没必要抄默。我说过,英专学硕应该具备MTI写作能力,论述题展示才华,临场自己写就行。
A behaviorist view of language acquisition——正反馈调节-模仿和实践
主要观点:
传统的行为主义者把语言看作是一种行为,认为语言的学习只是一种模仿和习惯的养成。
儿童模仿其周围人的声音和发音方式,在尝试不同的回答以帮助强化他们的尝试,儿童为得到强化而不断重复正确的语音和发音方式。
Imitation: word for word repetition of all or part of an utterance.
e.g. Mother: Would you like some bread and peanut butter?
Katie: Some bread and peanut butter.
Practice: repetitive manipulation of one structure or pattern.
e.g. Michael: I can handle it, Hannah can handle it. WE can handle it.
然后,儿童学习语言的这种渐进循环与习惯形成之类的大差不差。因此,在这一理论中,模仿和实践是基本的,儿童没障碍都应该会的,而区分辨别并总结才是学会语言的关键所在。
The child learns his language gradually in much the same way as habit-forming. So imitation and practice are preliminary, and discrimination and generalization are crucial to language development in this theory.
【论述大题】——什么是traditional behaviorist view? 什么是behaviorist? 你能介绍imitation and practice的过程吗?
Traditional behaviorists view language as a kind of behavior, and they believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.
A child imitates the sounds and patterns of the people around him; people recognize the child's attempts and help reinforce the attempts by answering differently.
The child repeats the right sounds or patterns to get the reward or reinforcement, and drops off the undesirable sounds or patterns as he may receive negative feedback for these.
Imitation and practice are preliminary, and discrimination and generalization are crucial to language development in this theory.
[规范答题+头脑风暴]我们做语文的句子赏析题,有啥修辞手法,肯定要写上去。
那我们在此提取<imation> and <practice>.
用于如下试题,
M1: What the delicious food! I like it.
C1: Delicious food~I like it, too.
M2: Would you like some bread and peanut butter?
C2: Some bread and peanut butter.
一般对话材料类的论述题,大都要求在lexical, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic角度分析句子。
还有一种这类提到小孩的对话,小孩爱说短句,常有语法错误。
至于题目怎么问,无所谓,只要和「语言习得」沾边的赏析,看到小孩重复和模仿,就把<imation> and <practice>放上去——如“根据传统行为主义学家的观点,小孩子习得语言会模仿大人说话,并在实践中反复重复和验证”。
往下继续,
【选填判断】——行为主义者观的主要倡导者是B.F.Skinner. 这一观点盛行于1960年前,自那以后,由于其理论不足而备受挑战和批评。
不足:
不少例子表明,儿童模仿大人说话的方式与鹦鹉学人说话是不同的。儿童会有选择性地模仿词语并根据对声音和发音模式的理解进行模仿。这是基于儿童已知的东西,而不是环境中“现有的”东西。
这揭示了其在解释儿童习得复杂语言系统上存在的不足。
除此之外,儿童有时能够掌控与成人的谈话和活动,儿童似乎也会选择模式,并将之用到新的语境中去。
他们不断创造新形式或词的新用法,直到他们弄明白大人们是如何运用这些形式的。
关于儿童语言习得,行为主义者的理论合理地解释了儿童是如何习得某些语言规则和惯例用法,但它没能够解释儿童如何习得更加复杂的语言结构。
【论述大题】——为什么traditional behaviorist在1960年后淡出历史舞台?为什么它会under challenge and criticism?
和<主要观点>结合的论述题,如,如何评价行为主义者的语言习得观?请分析行为主义习得理论的得与弊。
A considerable number of examples show that children do not imitate adults’ speech in much the same way as parrots do.
They imitate words selectively and according to their own understanding of the sounds or patterns, which is based on what the children have already known instead of what is “available” in the environment.
It reveals the behaviorist views' inadequacy in explaining how children acquire complex language system.
In addition, children may take the lead in conversations and activities with adults.
Children seem to be able to pick out patterns and generalize them to new contexts.
They create new forms or new uses of words until they finally figure out how the forms are used by adults.
中肯评价:
The behaviorist theory of child language acquisition offers reasonable account of how children acquire some of the regular and routine aspects of the language. Yet it fails to explain how they acquire more complex grammatical structures of the language.
An innatist view of language acquisition——拥抱唯心-不宜解释,外增实体
前摇<引出behaviorist的不足>:有证据显示,所有的儿童几乎在同一时间学会其复杂的母语。尽管学习语言的条件不同,儿童们都成功地掌握了其母语或方言的基本结构,且最终学会的语言信息超出了语言输入给出的例子。
由于这些令人费解的事实,The linguist Noam Chomsky声称人天生具有语言能力,而且语言的发展与儿童的其他生物功能,如吸吮、行走是一样的。
human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking, sucking.
这解释了儿童看上去对母语毫不费劲的习得,是解答语言本质和语言习得这类问题的关键。
该旗下领军人物-乔姆斯基的主要观点:他提出「语言习得机制Language Acquisition Device」,这是人类与生俱来的能力。LAD被描述成一个存在于人脑某处的想象的“black box”. 据说这个黑匣子含有对所有人类语言都适用的普遍原则。儿童需要通过接触自然语言的途径以激活LAD, 这使得他们能够将先天的基本语法系统知识与具体的语言匹配,从而发现其语言的结构。
【名词解释】——Chomsky proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability known as「Language Acquisition Device」. The LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the human brain. The “black box” is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language's structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language.
[头脑风暴]——<先天具有语言能力>,这表达特别有水平。我举个例子,假如你不承认你消极,那我就说你<潜意识>里认为什么什么,饶过<我没这么想>,而到<潜意识>层面。
如果人家语言学家开口说<人先天会语言>肯定不科学,不能和动物区分,没法对接<文化传递性>——所以说语言是后天学习的,但能力是先天拥有的。
[头脑风暴]——为什么要执意与动物区分呢?我的理解先从<马哲>说起,“通过实践,人和自然界要分开,人和动物要分开”。这当成定义句去看就行。为什么要分开?
一方面的理解是,如果不分开很麻烦——(a). 今后会招致很多麻烦,虽说现在不少人都不如富家的狗吃得好,甚至打上<动物权利>的标签来对人恶意限制,这是当时他不愿意看到的。无论人过得怎么样,如果<意识形态>都不认同差别,更不用说<实践层面>了。
(b). 你会发现不少极端反社主义要强化一种基础的观念“蚂蚁没了就没了,猪没了也没了→人也是,不值得→所以烧杀没负担”,如果人和动物不区分开,这是很极端的!
然后,应该就是说,<马哲>都给分开了吧,学术圈对照一下,语言学家也给分开吧!
[头脑风暴]——我给的标签是<拥抱唯心-不宜解释,外增实体>,为了方便记忆,这一条如果理解,完全就是翻版的套壳,方便背诵默写。
古希腊唯心主义者柏拉图提出“理念”的学说。他断言人在生下来之前,灵魂里就已经分有各种各样永恒的普遍形式“理念”,只是在灵观与肉体结合而降生为人的时候把它们暂时忘记了后来人受到经验的刺激,引起回忆,才重新恢复他原有的精确知识。
在柏拉图以后,早期的斯多阿学派讨论逻辑和认识的问题,注意到理性活动有逻辑的必然性——人人都会得出同样的逻辑结论。于是认为每个人的心灵里都有共同的原则,成为一切认识的基础。他们把这些原则称为“共同的想法”,认为既然是人人共具的,就不能来自经验,应当是天赋的。
细说UG<之前叫转换生成语法>: 「Universal Grammar」claims that every speaker knows a set of principles which apply to all language and also a set of parameters that can vary form one language to another, but only within certain limits.
这一理论认为,每个说话者都掌握着一套原理和参量,这些原理适用于所有语言,而参量则因语言而异,但这种差异是有一定限度的。
Later, Chomsky held that if children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the ways in which their own language makes use of these principles, and the variations in those principles which may exist in the particular language they are learning.
然后大师认为,如果儿童先天就具有UG, 那他们会知道自己的语言是如何运用语法原则以及其所学的特定语言中可能存在的变体。
小结:The innatists argue that children could not discover some complex rules by trial and error. Instead children's acquisition of these grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG. And children seem to be able to “know” the rules when exposed to a limited number of examples.
天赋主义者们认为,儿童不可能通过<尝试-错误-尝试>找出一些复杂的规则,如反身代词。而在UG引导下才能习得。不同的语言有不同的规则,而儿童会在有限的例子当中就理解这些规则。
<trial and error>, 可以用behaviorists’ used <imitation and practice>替换!
意义:This position in a way serves as an answer to the logical problem of language acquisition that the behaviorist view fails to recognize.
天赋主义者在一定程度上回答了语言习得的逻辑问题(logical problem of language acquisition), 而这正是行为主义者所没能认识到的问题。
【名词解释】——「logical problem of language acquisition」means the fact that children come to know more about the structure of their language than they could reasonably be expected to learn from the language samples available.
【论述大题】——这里提出<an imaginary “black box”之LAD>, <innate UG>.
用于赏析“那么难的语法,小孩子都能找到规律,好神奇呀~到底是什么魔力让他们灵活表达而不置于机械模仿呢?”
[辨证概念+规范答题]——LAD与UG的关系类似于“电脑”与“操作系统”,这超过了考研范围,而对外不做区分,按需回答即可。
因为LAD作为引子,弥补behaviorists’ view,引出了UG, 所以LAD一般用区别behaviorists’ view, 而UG用于解释LAD。
[杂谈]——LAD→UG,解释了人的学习天赋,弥补了行为主义者只会模仿与识别的BUG, 填坑了「Productivity能产性」。
关于UG, 教材举了<反身代词himself>的例子,挺抽象的,不知道在证明啥,我感觉也不重要,望悉知。
关于UG部分补充内容在[胡-11]
A interactionist view of language acquisition-适配的环境
互动主义者观认为,语言发展是儿童身上的人类特性(human characteristics of the child)与儿童发展所处的环境(the environment in which he grows)之间复杂的互动的产物(as a result of the complex interplay between).
互动主义者观与天赋主义者观互为补充,他们进一步声称修整到适合儿童水平的语言对于儿童的语言习得是必不可少的。
在日常生活中,人们常常会发现大人在和小孩说话时的方式与众不同。他们使用一种叫做「Motherese保姆式语言」,或叫「Child Directed Speech」(CDS), 或叫「Caretalker Talk」,以便使孩子能够听懂自己的意思。
这类对话具有以下特点:slow rate of speech, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures, frequent repetition, paraphrasing and limited vocabulary, etc. In addition, the topics of such talks are closely related to the “here and now” environment.
【名词解释】——「Motherese/CDS/Caretalker Talk」 is easier for children to understand spoken by mother, father or babysitter, and many people believe that it helps children to learn language when they talk to baby who is learning to talk.
[励志事迹]——吉姆的听觉正常,而他的父母都是聋子。他在三岁九个月之前几乎没接触过听力健康的成年人。他常常看的电视节目是他接触口语的唯一渠道。一项语言熟练测试表明,他在语言各个方面的水平都低于其同龄人。他在表达与其年龄相符的想法时使用的句子结构不同寻常且不符合语法。经过一段时期的交谈训练后,吉姆的语言能力进步神速。这一例子揭示了接触可理解性语言样本对儿童的重要性。只有在谈话中提供了与儿童的语言处理水平相应的语言时,儿童的语言习得才能得到促进。否则,就像上例所揭示的一样,不足以使儿童学会语言结构。吉姆的例子能很好地说明修整后的语言的重要性。
【选填判断】——
(a).除了“保姆式语言”,父母还通过修正错误发音向儿童提供直接的语言训练,即,提供「feedback反馈」和「Recasts重铸」。
(b).父母往往更注重儿童发声的内容而不是语法。然而,有的父母的确介意并会改正孩子的语法错误,但却没什么效果。
(c).目前,在儿童语言习得的研究中,对语言学习中的反馈和重铸还没有一个定论。
评价三者观:
These foregoing views attempt to explain child language development from different perspectives.
Behaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the regular and routine aspects.
The innatist accounts seem most plausible in explaining children's acquiring complex system.
The interactionist description sounds convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately in the fitted environment.
前面提到的几个观点试图从不同的角度解释儿童语言的发展。行为主义者观在解释常规用法方面比较合理;天赋主义者观在解释儿童习得复杂系统方面最值得鼓励;而互动主义观在解释儿童如何从环境中学会语言并正确使用语言方面令人信服。
扩充-Ⅴ非典型语言学习(Atypical development):
不是所有的儿童都能在语言发展上达到同样的水平。有些习得会被延迟但仍顺应着同样的语言发展规则。
Trauma或是Injury可能导致非典型语言发展。
非典型语言包括听力损失(hearing impairment)、智力障碍(mental retardation)、自闭症(autism)、口齿(stuttering)、失语症(aphasia)以及阅读障碍(dyslexia)和书写障碍(dysgraphia).