Byzantium at War AD 600-1453（战争中的拜占庭：公元600-1453年）（18）
作者：John Haldon约翰·哈尔顿
出版商：Routledge Taylor & Francis Group
自翻：神尾智代
How the wars ended：Death of an empire
战争如何结束：一个帝国的消亡
The Byzantine empire survived for some 500 years from about 600 in a form which grew increasingly away from its late Roman roots. Yet although there were many substantial changes in its geographical extent, institutional arrangements and social structure, it remained until the early 13th century the recognisable descendant of the eastern Roman empire of Justinian. By the middle of the 11th century, however, the international political and economic context of the 12th century - in which it had, after all, to survive - was beginning to change in ways that set up substantial challenges to the empire and, more importantly, to the ways in which it worked and was able to respond.
（拜占庭帝国从大约 600 年开始存活了大约 500 年，其形式越来越远离其晚期罗马根源。 然而，尽管它的地理范围、制度安排和社会结构发生了许多重大变化，但直到 13 世纪初，它仍然是公认的东罗马帝国查士丁尼的后裔。 然而，到了 11 世纪中叶，12 世纪的国际政治和经济背景——毕竟它是为了生存——开始发生变化，给帝国带来了实质性的挑战，更重要的是 ，它的工作方式和能够做出反应的方式。）
Deep cultural differences and an increasing divergence between the Greek eastern Mediterranean and south Balkan world, on the one hand, and the Latin-dominated lands of central and western Europe had become increasingly marked across the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries. The situation worsened as western economic strength and political and military aggression began to be a serious problem for the medieval east Roman state in the later 11th century, with the Normans on the one hand and the German emperors on the other presenting serious threats to Byzantine political authority, control and prestige in the Balkans, and with the growing challenge to Byzantine maritime power from Italian commercial centres such as Venice and Genoa. The crusading movement, western prejudices about Greek perfidy and effeteness, and the expansion of the Seljuk emirates in Asia Minor, transformed alienation and suspicion into open conflict.
（一方面，希腊东地中海和南巴尔干世界与拉丁文主导的中欧和西欧土地之间的深刻文化差异和日益加剧的分歧在 8、9 和 10 世纪变得越来越明显。 随着西方经济实力和政治军事侵略在 11 世纪后期开始成为中世纪东罗马国家的严重问题，一方面是诺曼人，另一方面是德意志皇帝，这对拜占庭的政治构成了严重威胁。 巴尔干地区的权威、控制和声望，以及威尼斯和热那亚等意大利商业中心对拜占庭海上力量的日益挑战。 十字军运动、西方对希腊背信弃义和软弱无能的偏见以及塞尔柱酋长国在小亚细亚的扩张，将疏远和猜疑转化为公开的冲突。）
The real threat now came no longer from the Islamic world to the east, but from the Christian west, and the first conclusive indication of the changed balance of power came in the form of the fourth crusade. Intending to attack Egypt, the crusading forces had found themselves heavily indebted to the Venetians, who had hired them the ships and provided some of the finance needed for the expedition. The Venetians had been looking for an opportunity to intervene in the confused situation at Constantinople in order to consolidate their trading privileges and their hold over the commerce of the eastern Mediterranean. The presence at Venice of AleXIos IV Angelos, a pretender to the imperial throne, rendered the task of the Venetians in requesting a diversion to Constantinople fairly easy. In 1203, the crusader army arrived before the walls of the Byzantine capital and within a short time had succeeded in installing AleXIos IV as co-emperor, with his blind father, Isaac 11, whom his uncle AleXIos III had deposed, and who had been brought out of prison after the latter fled the city. Once installed, AleXIos IV found it impossible to pay the promised rewards and, as the situation worsened, he found himself increasingly isolated. Early in 1204 he was deposed and murdered by AleXIos Doukas (AleXIos V); but this only exacerbated the problem. Although the new emperor strengthened the defences and was able to resist an initial crusader attack, the city fell on 12 April. The booty taken was immense - an eyewitness asserts that so much booty from a single city had not been seen since the creation of the world. The city, full of precious objects, statues, liturgical and ceremonial vestments and objects, which had never before fallen to violent assault, was mercilessly sacked and pillaged for three days. Much destruction occurred, with innumerable artefacts destroyed and precious metal objects melted down or stolen - some of the most spectacular objects can still he seen in Venice today. The capture of Constantinople in 1204 and the establishment of a Latin empire finalised the split between east and west, for the Latin patriarchate was not recognised by the Orthodox populations of the Byzantine or formerly-Byzantine regions. The patriarch Michael Autoreianos, elected in Nicaea in 1208, was recognised as the true patriarch of the Constantinopolitan Church.
（现在真正的威胁不再来自东方的伊斯兰世界，而是来自西方的基督教世界，权力平衡变化的第一个决定性迹象以第四次十字军东征的形式出现。 打算进攻埃及的十字军发现自己欠威尼斯人的债，威尼斯人雇佣了他们船只并提供了远征所需的一些资金。 威尼斯人一直在寻找机会干预君士坦丁堡混乱的局势，以巩固他们的贸易特权和对东地中海贸易的控制。 王位的觊觎者阿莱克修斯四世安吉洛斯在威尼斯的出现，使得威尼斯人要求转移到君士坦丁堡的任务变得相当容易。 1203 年，十字军大军抵达拜占庭首都的城墙前，并在短时间内成功任命阿莱克修斯四世为共治皇帝，他的盲父伊萨克 11 被他的叔叔阿莱克修斯三世废黜。 后者逃离城市后被带出监狱。 安装后，AleXIos IV 发现无法支付承诺的奖励，而且随着情况的恶化，他发现自己越来越孤立。 1204 年初，他被亚历克西奥斯·杜卡斯 (AleXIos V) 废黜并谋杀； 但这只会加剧问题。 尽管新皇帝加强了防御并能够抵抗最初的十字军进攻，但这座城市于 4 月 12 日沦陷。 掠夺的战利品是巨大的——一位目击者称，自世界诞生以来，从未见过如此多的来自一个城市的战利品。 这座城市充满了以前从未遭受过暴力袭击的珍贵物品、雕像、礼仪和礼仪服装和物品，被无情地洗劫和掠夺了三天。 发生了很多破坏，无数文物被毁，贵金属物品被熔化或被盗——他今天在威尼斯仍然可以看到一些最壮观的物品。 1204 年君士坦丁堡被占领和拉丁帝国的建立终结了东西方的分裂，因为拜占庭或前拜占庭地区的东正教人口不承认拉丁宗主教。 在1208年在尼太时期选出的Patriarch Michael Autoreianos被认为是君君利用教会的真正族长。）
After the capture and execution of the fleeing AleXIos V, a Latin emperor was elected in the person of Baldwin of Flanders, the empire's lands were divided among the victors, and Venice was awarded the coveted provinces and maritime districts. Greece was divided among several rulers and the principality of Achaia (in the Peloponnese) and the duchy of the Archipelago, the kingdom of Thessaloniki and the duchies of Athens and Thebes were established.
（在抓获并处决逃亡的阿列克谢五世后，一个以佛兰德斯的鲍德温为代表的拉丁皇帝被选举出来，帝国的土地被胜利者瓜分，威尼斯被授予令人垂涎的行省和海区。希腊被分成几个统治者，亚该亚公国(伯罗奔尼撒半岛)、群岛公国、塞萨洛尼基王国、雅典公国和底比斯公国相继建立。）
In spite of this catastrophe, the empire survived and several counter-claimants to the imperial throne asserted their position. A branch of the Angelos family established an independent principality, the Despotate of Epiros, in the western Balkans, which lasted until the end of the 14th century. The family of the Komnenoi governed a more or less autonomous region in central and eastern Pontus, where the 'empire' of Trebizond now appeared; and at Nicaea, where the noble Constantine Laskaris continued to exercise effective control over much of Byzantine western Asia Minor, the empire of Nicaea evolved, its first emperor being Constantine's brother Theodore, the son-in-law of AleXIos III, and thus possessed of a certain legitimacy. Apart from these territories, the Bulgarian Tsar Kalojan was in the process of establishing an independent Bulgaria, and was even able to capture the Latin emperor in 1205 after decisively crushing his army. By the 1230s the Bulgars were threatening to reduce the Byzantines of Epirus to vassal status.
（尽管发生了这场灾难，帝国幸存了下来，一些反对皇位的人坚持了自己的立场。 安吉洛斯家族的一个分支在巴尔干西部建立了一个独立的公国——埃皮罗斯专制公国，一直持续到 14 世纪末。 Komnenoi 家族统治着本都中部和东部的一个或多或少的自治区，特拉比松的“帝国”现在出现在那里； 在尼西亚，高贵的君士坦丁拉斯卡里斯继续对拜占庭西部小亚细亚的大部分地区进行有效控制，尼西亚帝国发展起来，它的第一位皇帝是君士坦丁的兄弟西奥多，阿莱克修斯三世的女婿，因此拥有 一定的合法性。除了这些领土外，保加利亚沙皇卡洛扬正在建立一个独立的保加利亚，甚至在1205年果断地粉碎了他的军队后，还俘获了拉丁皇帝。 到 1230 年代，保加利亚人威胁要将伊庇鲁斯的拜占庭人降为附庸国。）
The Latin empire based at Constantinople had a bleak future. The rulers of Epirus tried with help from the German emperor Frederick II, and later with King Manfred of Sicily, to establish a balance in the Balkans, with the intention of recovering Constantinople. But the emperors of Nicaea were in a better position strategically and politically and succeeded in making an alliance with Genoa. They thereby achieved a balance of power with Venice at sea. During the 1240s and 1250s they extended their territories in the southern Balkans, recovering a substantial area from its Frankish rulers. In Asia Minor a stabilisation of the frontier with the Seliuks was achieved for a while, and in 1261, taking advantage of the absence of most of the Latin garrison of Constantinople on an expedition, a small Nicaean force was able to gain entry to the City and reclaim it for the empire. Constantinople was the capital of the east Roman empire once more. By the end of the 13th century, parts of central Greece were once again in Byzantine hands, while they also controlled much of central and south-eastern Peloponnese.
（位于君士坦丁堡的拉丁帝国前途黯淡。 伊庇鲁斯的统治者试图在德国皇帝腓特烈二世以及后来的西西里国王曼弗雷德的帮助下，在巴尔干地区建立平衡，以收复君士坦丁堡。 但尼西亚皇帝在战略和政治上都处于有利地位，并成功地与热那亚结盟。 他们因此在海上与威尼斯取得了力量平衡。 在 1240 年代和 1250 年代，他们扩展了巴尔干南部的领土，从法兰克统治者手中收复了大片地区。 在小亚细亚，塞留克人的边境稳定了一段时间，1261 年，利用君士坦丁堡的大部分拉丁驻军缺席远征，一支小型尼西亚军队得以进入这座城市 并为帝国收回它。 君士坦丁堡再次成为东罗马帝国的首都。 到 13 世纪末，希腊中部的部分地区再次落入拜占庭手中，同时他们还控制了伯罗奔尼撒半岛中部和东南部的大部分地区。）
Nevertheless, the last two centuries of Byzantine rule in Asia Minor and the southern Balkans saw the loss of Asia Minor, and the reduction of the empire to a dependency of the growing Ottoman Sultanate. The empire simply did not have the resources to fight on several fronts, and even to fight on one for more than a short period proved an impossible burden. But the empire's strategic position made warfare unavoidable, while the imperial political ideology meant that emperors continued to look for ways of recovering former territory and lost glory. For a while in the second half of the 13th century, and under the able emperor Michael VIII 11259-82), the empire marked up several successes. It was able to expand into the Peloponnese and to force the submission of the Frankish principalities in the region. Alliances with Genoa and the kingdom of Aragon and, briefly, with the Papacy, enabled the empire once more to influence the international scene and to resist the powers which worked for its destruction and partition. But the international environment soon became much less favourable. For with the transfer of imperial attention back to Constantinople the Asian provinces were neglected at the very moment that the Mongols arrived in eastern Asia Minor, where they weakened Seljuq dominion over the nomadic Tiirkinen tribes, allowing them unrestricted access to the ill-defended Byzantine districts. By the 1270s most of the south-western and central coastal regions were lost, independent Turkish principalities or emirates, including the fledgling power of the Ottomans, posed a growing threat to the remaining districts, and by the mid-1330s, the remaining Aegean regions had been lost. The Mercenary Catalan Grand Company, hired by the emperor Andronikos II in 1303 to help fight the Turks and other enemies, turned against the empire when its demands for pay were not met and, after defeating the Burgundian duke of Athens in 1311, seized control of the region, which it held until 1388. Other mercenary companies behaved similarly. The empire no longer had the resources to meet any but the smallest hostile attack, and could soon hardly even afford to hire the mercenaries upon which it relied to defend itself.
（尽管如此，在小亚细亚和巴尔干南部的最后两个世纪拜占庭统治见证了小亚细亚的消失，以及帝国沦为日益壮大的奥斯曼苏丹国的附属国。 帝国根本就没有多条战线作战的资源，即使是在一条战线上战斗超过很短的时间也被证明是不可能的负担。 但帝国的战略地位使战争在所难免，而帝国的政治意识形态意味着皇帝继续寻找收复旧领土的方法，失去了荣耀。 在 13 世纪下半叶的一段时间里，在能干的皇帝迈克尔八世 (Michael VIII 11259-82) 的领导下，帝国取得了几次成功。 它能够扩展到伯罗奔尼撒半岛并迫使该地区的法兰克公国屈服。 与热那亚和阿拉贡王国的联盟，以及短暂地与罗马教皇的联盟，使该帝国再次能够影响国际舞台并抵抗为其破坏和分裂而努力的力量。 但国际环境很快变得不那么有利了。 因为随着帝国的注意力转移回君士坦丁堡，在蒙古人抵达小亚细亚东部的那一刻，亚洲省份被忽视了，在那里他们削弱了塞尔柱人对游牧蒂尔基宁部落的统治，允许他们不受限制地进入防御不力的拜占庭地区 . 到 1270 年代，西南和中部沿海地区的大部分地区都消失了，独立的土耳其公国或酋长国，包括刚刚起步的奥斯曼帝国，对其余地区构成越来越大的威胁，到 1330 年代中期，其余的爱琴海地区 已经丢失。 雇佣加泰罗尼亚大公司于 1303 年被皇帝安德罗尼科斯二世雇佣以帮助与土耳其人和其他敌人作战，当帝国的薪酬要求没有得到满足时，它转而反对帝国，并在 1311 年击败勃艮第的雅典公爵后，夺取了对帝国的控制权。 直到 1388 年才占据该地区。其他雇佣兵公司的行为也类似。 帝国不再有足够的资源来应对最小的敌对攻击，而且很快就连雇佣自己赖以自卫的雇佣兵都负担不起。）
In 1390 the last fortress in Asia Minor fell to the Ottomans. Part of the empire's failure can be ascribed to the vicious civil wars that were fought between factions of the ruling dynasty: war began in 1321, lasted until 1325, flared up again in 1327, and broke out again in 1341. The Serbian ruler Stefan Urosh 1V Dushan (1331-551 soon became involved on one side, while the other hired Turkish mercenaries to help in the fight. The struggle, which exhausted the small treasury, alienated the rural and urban populations who had to pay for it and failed to heal any of the rifts in the elite, ended with the victory of the emperor John VI Kantakouzenos in 1346. John had been supported by a faction of the clergy which had adopted a strongly anti-western view, a view that had important consequences for the last century of Byzantine culture and politics. But politically and economically the empire was in a desperate situation. The Serbs had absorbed Albania, eastern Macedonia and Thessaly, and all that was left of the empire was Thrace around Constantinople, a small district around Thessaloniki (surrounded by Serbian territory), and its lands in the Peloponnese and the northern Aegean isles. Each region functioned as a more or less autonomous province, so that Byzantium was an empire in name and by tradition alone. The civil wars had wrecked the economy of these districts, which could barely afford the minimal taxes the emperors demanded. Galata, the Genoese trading centre on the other side of the Golden Horn from Constantinople, had an annual revenue seven times as great as that of the imperial city itself!
（1390 年，小亚细亚的最后一座堡垒被奥斯曼帝国攻陷。 帝国的失败部分归因于统治王朝各派系之间的恶性内战：战争始于 1321 年，一直持续到 1325 年，1327 年再次爆发，1341 年再次爆发。 塞尔维亚统治者斯特凡·乌罗什 (Stefan Urosh) 1V独山（1331-551年很快卷入一方，另一方则雇佣土耳其雇佣兵帮助战斗。这场斗争耗尽了小国库，疏远了农村和城市人口，他们不得不为此付出代价，却未能治愈 精英阶层的任何裂痕都以 1346 年皇帝约翰六世 Kantakouzenos 的胜利而告终。 拜占庭文化和政治的世纪。但在政治和经济上，帝国处于绝境。塞尔维亚人吞并了阿尔巴尼亚、东马其顿和色萨利，帝国只剩下君士坦丁诺普附近的色雷斯 le，塞萨洛尼基周围的一个小区（被塞尔维亚领土包围），其土地位于伯罗奔尼撒半岛和爱琴海北部岛屿。 每个地区或多或少都是一个自治省，因此拜占庭在名义上和传统上都是一个帝国。 内战摧毁了这些地区的经济，几乎无法负担皇帝要求的最低税收。 位于君士坦丁堡金角湾另一边的热那亚贸易中心加拉塔，年收入是皇城本身的七倍！）
During the civil wars, and as a result of their fighting for Kantakouzenos, the Ottomans began permanently to establish themselves in Europe. By the beginning of the 15th century, and with the exception of some limited areas in the Peloponnese and a few Aegean islands, there remained no imperial possessions in Greece. The advance of the Ottomans in Europe led to the ultimate extinction of Byzantium. Having defeated and subjugated both Serbs and Bulgars by the end of the 14th century, the Ottoman advance caused considerable anXIety in the west. A crusade was organised under the leadership of the Hungarian king, Sigismund, but in 1396 at the battle of Nicopolis his army was decisively defeated. The Byzantines attempted to play the different elements off against one another, supporting first the western powers and then the Ottomans. Some Byzantines espoused a possible solution by arguing for a union of the eastern and western Churches, which would bring with it the subordination of Constantinople to Rome. But the monasteries and the rural population were bitterly hostile to such a compromise. It was even argued by some that subjection to the Turks was preferable to union with the hated Latins. Neither party was able to assert itself effectively within the empire, with the result that the western powers remained on the whole apathetic to the plight of 'the Greeks'.
（在内战期间，由于他们为 Kantakouzenos 而战，奥斯曼帝国开始在欧洲永久建立自己的地位。 到 15 世纪初，除了伯罗奔尼撒半岛和一些爱琴海岛屿的一些有限地区外，希腊没有任何帝国财产。 奥斯曼人在欧洲的进军导致拜占庭最终灭绝。 在 14 世纪末击败并征服了塞尔维亚人和保加利亚人之后，奥斯曼帝国的进攻在西方引起了相当大的焦虑。 在匈牙利国王西吉斯蒙德的领导下组织了一次十字军东征，但在 1396 年的尼科波利斯战役中，他的军队被决定性地击败了。 拜占庭人试图将不同的元素相互对抗，首先支持西方列强，然后是奥斯曼帝国。 一些拜占庭人支持一个可能的解决方案，主张东、西方教会联合，这将使君士坦丁堡从属于罗马。 但寺院和农村人口对这种妥协持强烈敌意。 一些人甚至认为，服从土耳其人比与可恨的拉丁人联合更可取。任何一方都无法在帝国内有效地维护自己的利益，结果西方列强总体上对“希腊人”的困境漠不关心。）
In 1401 the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid began preparations for the siege of Constantinople, but the empire was saved at the last minute by the appearance of Mongol forces under Timur (Timur Lenk, known in English as `Taniburlane), who invaded Asia Minor and crushed the Ottoman forces at the battle of Ankara in 1402. The Byzantines used the opportunity to strengthen their control in the Peloponnese, but the respite was of short duration. Timur died soon after his victory over Bayezid, his empire broke up in internecine conflict, and Ottoman power revived. The Sultans consolidated their control in Anatolia, and set about expanding their control of the Balkans. The Byzantine emperor John VIII travelled widely in Europe in a vain attempt to gather support against the Islamic threat. He even accepted the union with the western Church at the council of Florence in 1439; and a last effort on the part of the emperor led to the crusade which ended in disaster at the battle of Varna in Bulgaria in 1444. In 1453 Mehmet II set about the siege of Constantinople.
（1401年，奥斯曼帝国苏丹巴耶济德开始准备围攻君士坦丁堡，但帝国在最后一刻因帖木儿（Timur Lenk，英文称为“Taniburlane”）领导下的蒙古军队的出现而得救，他入侵小亚细亚并粉碎了小亚细亚 1402 年在安卡拉战役中的奥斯曼军队。拜占庭人利用这个机会加强了对伯罗奔尼撒半岛的控制，但短暂的喘息机会。 帖木儿在战胜巴耶济德后不久就去世了，他的帝国在内讧中分崩离析，奥斯曼帝国复兴。 苏丹巩固了对安纳托利亚的控制，并着手扩大对巴尔干地区的控制。 拜占庭皇帝约翰八世在欧洲广泛旅行，试图争取支持以对抗伊斯兰威胁，但徒劳无功。 他甚至于 1439 年在佛罗伦萨会议上接受了与西方教会的联合。 1444 年，由于皇帝的最后努力，十字军在保加利亚的瓦尔纳战役中以灾难告终。1453 年，穆罕默德二世开始围攻君士坦丁堡。）
The defences of the city, although suffering from lack of maintenance, remained both impressive and powerful, and it took several weeks of siege before the Ottoman forces, equipped with heavy artillery, including cannon, were able to effect some serious breaches and challenge the small garrison. In spite of a valiant effort on the part of the imperial troops and their western allies, who were massively outnumbered, the walls were finally breached by the elite Janissary units on 29 May 1453. The last emperor, Constantine XI, died fighting on the ramparts while leading a counter-attack. His body was never found. Later, Greek legend had it that, like King Arthur of British legend, he had not died, and would one day return to lead his people to victory.
（这座城市的防御虽然缺乏维护，但仍然令人印象深刻且强大，经过数周的围攻，配备包括大炮在内的重型火炮的奥斯曼军队才能够进行一些严重的突破并挑战小国 驻军。 尽管帝国军队和他们的西方盟友做出了英勇的努力，他们的人数远远超过了他们，但城墙终于在 1453 年 5 月 29 日被精锐的禁卫军攻破。最后一位皇帝君士坦丁十一世在城墙上战死 在带领反击的同时。他的尸体从未被发现。 后来，希腊传说说，他和英国传说中的亚瑟王一样，没有死，总有一天会回来带领他的人民走向胜利。）
Constantinople, under its Turkicised name Istanbul (from the Greek eis tin point — in the city) became the new Ottoman capital. The Aegean islands that remained to the empire were soon absorbed under Ottoman rule. The Byzantine principality in the southern Peloponnese, the despotate of Morea, fell in 1460, and Trebizond, seat of the Grand Komnenoi, fell to a Turkish army in 1461. The east Roman empire — Byzantium — was no more.
（君士坦丁堡以其突厥化名称伊斯坦布尔（来自希腊语 eis tin point — 在城市中）成为新的奥斯曼帝国首都。 帝国留下的爱琴海岛屿很快就被奥斯曼帝国吞并了。 伯罗奔尼撒南部的拜占庭公国，即摩里亚的专制国，于 1460 年沦陷，而大公议会的所在地特拉比松于 1461 年被土耳其军队攻陷。东罗马帝国——拜占庭——不复存在。）
未完待续
