【帝国时代一】希腊文明在官方说明文件中的描述

注：英语原文取自最古老版本的帝国时代一的帮助文件中，关于历史的文本量相当巨大，但在win7系统更新后，以win95为基础的hlp文件被淘汰，如今已经很难找到打开hlp文件的方法。如有大佬能提供支援就好了。

注：因为原hlp文件并未随着罗马复兴资料片的更新而更新，所以这个系列不包含新增的罗马、迦太基、马其顿和巴尔米拉文明。

注：因为年代久远（1996年左右），很多记述可能已经与最新的考古发现有着显著的差异。

注：蹩脚英语，翻译腔，懒得润色的语句。

注：英语原文放在前面，汉语翻译放在后面。

更多资料：

世界地理历史小常识65——希腊。CV5643967

世界地理历史小常识67——马其顿。CV5689099

Greek culture (2100 to 146 BC)

The ancient culture with the broadest and most long-lasting impact on the future of Western civilization was that of Greece. The Greeks dominated the known world militarily for only a brief period, but their cultural influence spread farther and lasted much longer. Rediscovered in the West in large part after the Medieval Dark Age, it was an important foundation for the growth of modern western civilization.The Greeks never formed a unified kingdom, but existed as city-states, sometimes working together and sometimes at war with each other. At the zenith of Greek military power under Alexander the Great, they were a collection of city-states in cooperation. 

Location

Greek culture was centered on the mainland of modern Greece but spread to the islands of the Aegean, into the lower Balkans, across the Aegean to the western coast of Anatolia, to Sicily, to parts of North Africa, and to southern France (Marseilles was founded as a Greek colony). The campaigns of Alexander greatly expanded the culture, establishing it in central Anatolia, the Levant, Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia to the borders of India. In the early second century BC, it was possible to travel from the south of modern France to India using only Greek to communicate.

Capital

As a collection of city-states, there was usually no capital of the Greek culture. During the Bronze Age, Mycenea was one of the strongest and richest citadels. During the Archaic and Classical periods, Athens (the cultural center) and Sparta (the strongest military power) vied for prominence. During the brief Greek apogee under Philip and Alexander, the de facto capital was the Macedonian city of Pydna. Following the death of Alexander, his empire was eventually divided into three parts. The Antigonid Dynasty ruled Greece and Macedonia from Pydna. The Selucids ruled Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Syria, the Levant, and Persia from a newly built city, Selucia, on the Tigris River. The Ptolemies ruled Egypt from another newly built city, Alexandria.

Rise to power

The history of ancient Greek culture is divided into several periods: the Bronze Age (2100 to 1200 BC), the Dark Age (1200 to 800 BC), the Archaic Period (800 to 500 BC), the Classical Age (500 to 336 BC), and the Hellenistic Period (336 to 30 BC).The Bronze Age saw the rise of the first cities on the mainland. These were predominantly fortified palaces on hilltops. This culture was named after its greatest citadel, Mycenea. Excavation of Mycenea by Heinrich Schlieman in the 1870's revealed fabulous burial tomb treasures. The Mycenean culture disappeared around 1200 BC following attacks by barbarians. The city of Troy was also sacked around this time.The catastrophe of 1200 BC (described earlier) devastated the economy of Greece and ushered in a Dark Age that lasted about 400 years. Gradually civilization reappeared at old sites, such as Athens, and at new sites such as Sparta and Corinth.By 800 BC the city-states of the mainland were economic and military powers. During the next 300 years, the Archaic Period, the Greeks expanded by establishing colonies across the Aegean in Anatolia (Ionia) and along the central and western Mediterranean coasts. They vied with the Phoenicians for colony sites and trade. The Archaic Period came to an end when the rising eastern power of Persia came into conflict with the Greeks over the Anatolian coast.The period of 500 to 336 BC was the Classical Age of Greece, dominated first by the wars with Persia and then the Peloponnesian civil war between Athens and Sparta. Although this period is defined by military events, it was also a time of many important cultural advances.The Hellenistic Period takes its name from the Greek word Hellene (meaning Greek). This period began with the installation of Alexander as king of Macedon following the assassination of his father. In 13 years of military campaigns, Alexander conquered most of the known world and spread the Greek culture behind his armies. After Alexander's premature death in 323 BC, his empire was eventually divided into three parts. Although these parts fought each other and gradually shrank due to rebellion and attack, the culture of the civilized world remained primarily Greek.

Economy

Grains and bread were staples of the Greek diet but they could be grown only in a few fertile areas. Most of Greece was hilly and not suitable for large farms on the scale of Egypt or Mesopotamia. Farmers grew fruits and vegetables where they could clear fields. On the hillsides they grew olives for food and oil. Further up the hills they grew grapes for wine.Horses were raised mainly in Thessaly and Macedonia where there were open grasslands. Elsewhere they were kept only by the rich. Cattle were kept mainly for milk, pigs and poultry for meat, and sheep for leather and meat. Seafood supplemented diets in coastal areas.The Greeks were renowned for pottery that was both functional and beautiful. Decorations on pottery revealed much about the ancient Greek culture to historians. By carefully studying the changing styles of pottery, historians were able to date it and then use shards to help date excavations and other objects found with it.The Greeks took advantage of their geographic position between the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas to engage in trade. City-states traded among themselves and overseas. Thessaly and Macedonia exported horses, for example, while Athens exported honey and silver. Important Greek exports were oil, wine, pottery, sculpture, metalwork, cloth, and books. Their most important import was grain from the Black Sea region, Egypt, Italy, Sicily, and Cyprus. Other important imports were timber, wool, linen, copper, dyes, silk, spices, and ivory.Coins were first used in Lydia, a small kingdom in northwestern Anatolia, at the end of the seventh century BC. The concept quickly spread to the Ionian Greek colonies and then throughout the Greek culture. The most popular coins were made of silver. City-states celebrated their independence by minting their own coins showing a representative symbol (the owl for Athens and the Pegasus for Corinth, for example).

Religion and culture

The Greeks believed in many gods who were responsible for the living and the dead. Their gods were very human-like.They got married, had children, felt love and jealousy, and sought revenge. Legends of the gods taught what pleased and what angered them. The principal gods were the twelve Olympians thought to live on Mount Olympus. They were led by Zeus, ruler of the heavens. Temples were built to provide earthly homes for individual gods. The Parthenon in Athens, for example, was dedicated to the goddess Athene. Inside was a statue of Athene made of gold and ivory that stood over forty feet high. Offerings of jewelry, pottery, and sculpture were given to the temple. Animals and birds were given to the priests for sacrifice. Festivals were held to please individual gods and persuade them to be munificent.Before an important project was started, an oracle or soothsayer was consulted to learn the will of the gods. The most famous of these was the Oracle of Delphi, where a priestess called the Pythia would voice the will of Apollo. Priests would interpret the Pythia's often vague replies. In one famous example, Croesus, the king of Lydia, asked whether he should invade Persia or not. He was told such an invasion would destroy a great kingdom. He assumed the Persians were the kingdom in question, but in fact Lydia was conquered by Persia.Women in Greece led generally sheltered lives and had little active role in society. They took their social status from their husbands. The emphasis was on having sons and raising them to be citizens and soldiers. Boys were given an extensive education in reading, writing, arithmetic, music, poetry, dancing, and athletics. Both mental and physical development was stressed.Music, poetry, and theater were an important part of the Greek culture. All Greek cities and colonies built a theater or amphitheater.Society consisted of two main groups' free people and slaves. Slaves were owned by free people and were employed as servants and laborers. Slaves were purchased in international slave markets or were prisoners of war. Free men in Athens were either citizens, born to Athenian parents, or metics, born outside of Athens. Both groups were required to serve in the army, but only citizens could become government officials or jurors.

Government

An independent city-state was called a polis. Each consisted of the city and surrounding countryside. The largest of these was Athens, with about one thousand square miles of territory.During the Archaic Period, most city-states were governed by a group of rich landowners. These were the aristoi, meaning best people, or the aristocrats. Resentment of aristocratic rule led to riots when traders and craftsmen began to prosper but had no say in government. Beginning around 650 BC, individuals called tyrants were allowed to rule to keep the peace. Government was improved under an enlightened tyrant but the system was susceptible to corruption. In 508 BC Athens introduced a new system called democracy, in which all citizens took part in their government. Women, foreigners, and slaves had no say.

Architecture

Greek homes were simple structures of mud and brick but their public buildings, especially temples, were beautiful structures of stone. A distinctive feature of Greek architecture was the use of columns supporting horizontal lintels.

Military

During the Bronze Age, the armies of the individual palaces were mainly chariots manned by the richest citizens. These armies were destroyed by barbarians around 1200 BC, sending Greece into its Dark Age.During the Archaic Age, the aristocrats at first dominated the army as cavalry because they alone could afford horses. Foot soldiers came from the poorer classes that could not afford horses or better weapons and armor.Eventually trade and wealth increased, while the cost fell for new weapons made of iron. The cavalry was replaced in importance by a new army of well-equipped foot soldiers called hoplites.Each city had a different system for raising its army. In Athens, all free men aged 20 to 50 could be called upon in time of war. Each of the ten Athenian tribes had to provide enough troops for one regiment and one commander, called a strategoi.Hoplites carried on their left arm a large round shield that extended from neck to thigh. The shield was decorated with a symbol from their family, tribe, or city. They wore bronze helmets with a horsehair crest on top to make the soldier look taller and more powerful. For body protection they wore a cuirass of bronze, or leather and bronze, from shoulder to chest, plus bronze greaves on the front of the lower legs. Their weapons were a long spear and a short iron sword.Hoplites fought in the phalanx, a square of men usually eight ranks deep. It was important that the phalanx move and fight together. Flutes and other musical instruments helped them keep in step. The terrifying hand-to-hand clash of opposing phalanxes called for extreme courage and discipline.The Greeks disdained the use of cavalry and skirmish troops using bows, slings, or javelins. As long as they fought among themselves or were lucky, this was not a problem. Extensive contact with other military systems during the Persian Wars eventually convinced them that the phalanx needed to be supported. The ultimate Greek army employed heavy and light cavalry, light infantry, and skirmishers in support of its heavy hoplite infantry.

Decline and fall

Following the death of Alexander the Great, the city-states of mainland Greece attempted to rebel against Macedonian rule but were defeated in the Lamian War of 323-322 BC. During the next 40 years, the War of the Diadochi contested the division of Alexander's empire. It was eventually divided into three kingdoms (Greece, Egypt, and Persia). These three kingdoms made up the Hellenistic world.The Antigonid Dynasty ruled Greece and Macedon but lost control of their colonies in southern Italy to the Romans in 275 BC. The Greeks supported the Carthaginians against Rome during the Punic Wars and paid for that once the Carthaginians were destroyed. Three Macedonian Wars against Rome resulted in the end of the Antigonid Dynasty in 168 BC. Following an unsuccessful Macedonian revolt, the city-states of Greece became provinces of the Roman Empire in 146 BC.The Selucid Dynasty attempted to rule what had been the enormous Persian Empire. This proved impossible and parts began rebelling very quickly. By 180 BC their kingdom had been halved. In 64 BC the Roman general Pompey seized the Selucid kingdom and incorporated it into the Roman Empire.The Ptolemaic Dynasty consisted only of Egypt. Because of its relative seclusion and wealth, it lasted the longest of the three Hellenistic kingdoms. Queen Cleopatra VII and her husband Marc Antony of Rome were defeated in battle by Octavian at Actium in 31 BC. The last Ptolemy committed suicide and Egypt became part of the Roman Empire in 30 BC.

Legacy

Greek language and culture spread behind Alexander the Great's armies. The Romans in turn adopted much of the Greek culture, preserving it and spreading it to new parts of the world. After the fall of Rome, Greek culture was preserved and expanded upon within the Byzantine Empire and in the Arab world, and passed on to the West following the Renaissance.The legacy of ancient Greece has had an impact on many disciplines, including medicine (the scientific approach to medicine; the Hippocratic Oath taken by doctors), mathematics (Euclidean geometry; the Pythagorean theorem), literature (the Iliad and the Odyssey), theater, poetry, sculpture, language (the Bible's New Testament was written in Greek; thousands of words passed on to modern languages), architecture (the White House; the British Museum), history (Herodutus is regarded as the father of history), politics (democracy), philosophy (all philosophical studies since Plato have been referred to by one writer as mere footnotes to his work), science (the scientific method; laws of nature; the classification of plants and animals; the heliocentric theory), athletics (the Olympic Games), and trade (Greeks established trade routes to India and the Silk Road to Asia). 

希腊文化（公元前2100年至公元前146年）

对西方文明的未来影响最广泛最持久的古代文明就是古希腊。希腊人只在很短一段时间内就统治了已知的世界军事，但他们的文化影响越来越深远，持续时间更长。西方在中世纪黑暗时代再次发现了大部分希腊文化，这成为了现代西方文明发展的重要基础。希腊人从未形成统一的王国，而是作为城邦存在，有时合作，有时则互相争斗。亚历山大大帝的带领下，希腊军事力量达到顶峰，此时他们便是作为联合的城邦一起合作。

位置

希腊文化以现在希腊的主体为中心，扩散到爱琴海岛、下巴尔干半岛，穿过爱琴海到达安纳托利亚西海岸、西西里岛、北非部分地区、法国南部（马赛即为古希腊殖民地）。亚历山大的运动大大扩散了文化，直到安纳托利亚中部、黎凡特、埃及、叙利亚、美索不达米亚、波斯甚至印度的边界。在公元前二世纪初，很有可能只需要用希腊语就能在从法国南部到印度的广大区域内无障碍交流。

首都

作为城邦联合，希腊文化一般不存在首都。在青铜时代，迈锡尼是最强大最富有的城邦之一。在上古和古典时期，雅典（文化中心）和斯巴达（军事中心）争相凸显。在腓力大帝和亚历山大控制希腊的短期内，事实上的首都是马其顿的皮德纳。亚历山大死后，帝国最后分为三部分，安提戈涅王朝在皮德纳控制了希腊和马其顿，塞琉西王朝在底格里斯河上新建的城市塞琉西亚控制了美索不达米亚、安纳托利亚、叙利亚、黎凡特、波斯，托勒密王朝在另一个新建城市亚历山大里亚控制埃及。

发展壮大

古希腊文明历史分为几个时期：青铜时代（公元前2100年至公元前1200年）、黑暗时代（公元前1200至800年）、上古时代（公元前800至500年）、古典时代（公元前500至336年）、希腊化时代（公元前336至30年）。青铜时代见证了大陆第一批城邦的兴起，主要是山顶的强化宫殿。这个文化以最强大的迈锡尼城堡命名。海因里希·施列曼在1970年代发掘了迈锡尼，揭示了神话般的墓葬、珍宝。公元前1200年左右，迈锡尼文明在海民袭击之后消失。特洛伊城也在这个时期被摧毁。公元前1200年的灾难摧毁了希腊经济，并迎来了一个持续了400多年的黑暗时代。渐渐地，文明再次出现在例如雅典古城，以及新兴的斯巴达、科林斯等地。公元前800年，大陆的城邦是主要的经济、军事力量。在未来三百年的上古时代中，希腊人通过爱琴海在安纳托利亚（爱奥尼亚）建立殖民地，并沿着中西部地中海扩张，与腓尼基人争夺殖民地和贸易。当东方波斯的力量与安纳托利亚的希腊人发生冲突时，上古时代结束了。公元前500年至公元前336年是希腊的经典时代，首先是希腊波斯战争，其次是伯罗奔尼撒战争，希腊与斯巴达的内战。虽然这个时期是由军事活动所定义的，但也是许多重要的文化进步时代。希腊化时代以希腊语的希腊命名。这个时期亚历山大作为马其顿国王，因为他父亲遭暗杀即位。在13年的军事行动中，亚历山大征服了大多数西方已知的世界，并将希腊文化传遍各地。亚历山大在公元前323年过早死亡，他的帝国最后分为三个部分，虽然这些部分相互争斗，由于叛乱和袭击而逐渐萎缩，但这些地方的文化仍然是希腊语文化。

经济

谷物和面包是希腊饮食的主食，但是它们只能在少数肥沃地区种植。希腊大部分地区是丘陵，不适合兴建埃及或美索不达米亚这样的大型农场。农民种植水果蔬菜，只需要清出土地即可。在山坡上，他们种植了橄榄来提供食物和油。后来也开始种葡萄来酿酒。马主要在色萨利和马其顿这种有广阔草原的地方养殖。在其它区域，它们只由富人养育。牛主要用于采集牛奶，猪和家禽用来肉食，羊则是为了皮毛和肉食。沿海地区可用海鲜补充饮食。希腊人以精美实用的陶器出名，陶器上的装饰表达了历史学家对古希腊文化的看法。通过仔细研究陶器不断变化的风格，历史学家就能了解它，然后使用碎片来协助挖掘或发现其他的物件。希腊人利用了爱琴海和地中海之间的地理位置来进行贸易。城邦国家在海外贸易，色萨利和马其顿出口马，雅典出口蜂蜜和白银。整个希腊而言，主要的出口商品是橄榄油、葡萄酒、陶器、雕塑、金属制品、布和书籍。他们最重要的进口商品是黑海地区、埃及、意大利、西西里和塞浦路斯的粮食。其他的重要进口商品有木材、羊毛、亚麻、铜、染料、丝绸、香料和象牙。公元前七世纪末，钱币首先在位于安纳托利亚西北的吕底亚小国使用，这一概念很快传播到爱奥尼亚的希腊殖民地，然后遍及希腊。最流行的硬币由银制成，城市通过铸造带有自己独特符号的硬币来庆祝自己的独立，例如代表雅典的猫头鹰和科林斯的神马。

宗教与文化

希腊人相信许多负责生死的神。他们的神是非常人性化的，他们结婚、有孩子、感受到爱和嫉妒并寻求报复。神话讲述了什么让他们高兴或愤怒。主要的神是十二个居住在奥林匹斯山的，他们认为他们应该住在那。他们由宙斯统治者领导。寺庙被建造为神灵在地球上的私人住所。例如希腊的巴特农神庙，献给了雅典娜女神。里面有雅典娜的塑像，由高达四十英尺高的金子和象牙制成。牺牲品、首饰、陶器和雕塑都献给了圣殿。动物和鸟类被献给祭司作为肉食。人们举行节日来取悦特定的神，劝说他们始终保持慷慨。在重要事件发生前，会咨询神谕来了解神的意志，其中最著名的是德尔菲神谕台，哪里的一个叫比迪亚的女祭司会表达阿波罗的意志。祭祀会解释比迪亚含混其词的答复。在一个著名的例子中，吕底亚国王克罗苏斯询问是否应该入侵波斯。他被告知这会毁灭一个伟大的王国。他以为被毁灭的是波斯，但结果自己的王国被毁灭了。希腊的女人通常养育孩子，在社会上几乎没有积极的作用。他们从丈夫身上取得社会地位，重点是把儿子培养成公民和士兵。男孩在阅读、写作、算术、诗歌、音乐、舞蹈和田径方面受到广泛的教育。心理和生理发展都受到重视。音乐、诗歌和戏剧是希腊文化的重要组成部分。所有希腊城市和殖民地都建立了一个剧院或露天剧场。社会组织主要包括两个主要团体：自由人和奴隶。奴隶为自由人所有，并被雇用为仆役或劳工。奴隶是在国际奴隶市场上购买的，或者是战俘。雅典的自由人是雅典父母生的公民以及雅典以外出生的学者。这两个团体都被要求在军队任职，只有公民才能成为政府官员或陪审团员。

政府

独立的城邦被称为Polis。每个都由城市和周围的乡村组成。其中最大的是雅典，有大约一千平方里的领土，在上古时期，大多数城邦被一群富有的土地拥有者统治。他们被称为阿里斯托伊，意思是贵族，后来称为英文“贵族”的来源。贵族统治导致了怨恨，原因是贸易商人和工匠的繁荣却没有带来应有的话语权，并引起了骚乱。公元前650年左右，被称为暴民的人们被允许统治来维护和平。政府在一个开明的国君下得到改善，但这一制度导致了腐败。公元前508年，雅典引入了一个名为民主的新制度，所有公民都参与其中。妇女、外国人和奴隶没有话语权。

建筑

希腊的家园是简单的泥砖建筑，但是公共建筑，尤其是寺庙，使用精美的石头建造。希腊建筑的一个独特特征是使用支撑横梁的一列柱子。

军事

在青铜时代，个别宫殿的军队主要是由最富有公民提供的战车。这些军队在公元前1200年左右被野蛮人摧毁，将希腊送入了黑暗时代。在上古时代，贵族们首先将将军们统治为骑兵，因为只有他们能负担的起马。步兵来自不能负担马或更好武器盔甲的较贫穷阶级。随着贸易和财富增加，铁制新武器成本下降。骑兵被重新装备为一批名叫Hoplite的精锐步兵队，每个城市都有不同的征兵制度。在雅典，20至50岁所有自由男子都可在战争时被召唤。十个雅典部落中的每一个都必须为一个团和指挥官提供足够的部队，称为“战术”。他们的左臂上携带一个从颈部到大腿都能护住的大圆盾。盾牌用家族、部落或城市图标装饰。他们穿着顶上有马毛顶的铜头盔，使士兵看上去更高大。为了保护身体，他们穿着青铜或皮铜混合的铠甲，从肩膀到胸部以及小腿前面都有保护。他们的武器是一把长矛和一把短铁剑。重装步兵在方阵中战斗，方阵是一个通常八人方的方阵。方阵中的士兵一起移动战斗，这十分重要。长笛或其他乐器用于帮助他们保持步伐。反方阵的对手需要极端的勇气和纪律。希腊人蔑视使用弓箭、吊索或标枪的骑兵和小股部队。只要他们自己打或者足够幸运，一般都不是问题。在波斯战争期间与其他军事系统的广泛接触使他们相信，方阵需要得到支持。最后希腊部队使用重型轻骑兵、轻步兵和冲锋步兵来支持其重装步兵。

衰落与灭亡

在亚历山大大帝去世之后，希腊的大城邦试图反抗马其顿的统治，但是在公元前323至322年的拉米亚战争中失败。在未来的40多年里，狄奥多西战争改变了亚历山大帝国，最终使其分裂为三部分（希腊、埃及和波斯）。这三个王国组成了希腊语世界。安提戈涅王朝统治了希腊和马其顿，在公元前275年，他们在意大利南部被罗马击败，失去了殖民地。希腊人支持迦太基人在布匿战争中对抗罗马，但迦太基人被摧毁，资金付之东流。公元前146年，罗马发动了三次马其顿战争，征服了安提戈涅王朝，伴随着一次不成功的反抗，希腊城邦沦为罗马帝国的省份。塞琉西亚王朝试图控制波斯帝国的伟大成就，但后来被证实是不可能的，零星的反叛迅速扩大。公元前180年，他们的版图已经缩小到一半，公元前64年，罗马将军庞培征服了塞琉西亚王朝，将其并入罗马共和国。托勒密王朝仅由埃及组成，由于其相对的沉默和富有，持续时间在三个希腊化国家中最长。但在公元前31年，克里奥帕特拉七世女王介入了丈夫马克安东尼和屋大维之间夺取罗马权力的战争，在亚克星被击败，最终自杀。埃及则在公元前30年成为罗马帝国的一部分。

遗产

希腊语言和文化在亚历山大大帝军队的传播之后，罗马人反过来采取了大部分的希腊文化，保存并传播的世界新的地方。罗马灭亡后，希腊文化在拜占庭帝国和阿拉伯世界被保存和扩展，并在文艺复兴时期传遍西方。古希腊遗产包括医学在内的诸多学科（科学的医学方法、医生采取的希波克拉底誓言）、数学（欧几里德几何、毕达哥拉斯定理）、文学（伊利亚特和奥德赛）、戏剧、诗歌、雕塑、语言（圣经的新约以希腊语写成，后来成为了数千条现代习语）、建筑（白宫和大英博物馆的借鉴）、历史（希洛多图斯被视为历史之父）、政治（民主）、哲学（自从柏拉图以来所有的哲学研究被认为是他的工作的脚注）、科学（科学方法、自然规律、植物动物分类学、日心说）、田径（奥运会）和贸易（希腊人建立的通往印度的贸易路线以及到亚洲的丝绸之路）