【简译】古代日本与中国的关系

Relations between ancient Japan and China have a long history, and in certain periods the exchange of political, religious and cultural practices between the two was intense. China, the much older state and the more developed, passed on to Japan (sometimes indirectly via Korea) a long list of ideas including rice cultivation, writing, Buddhism, centralised government models, civil service examinations, temple architecture, clothing, art, literature, music, and eating habits. Trade relations greatly outlasted cultural and diplomatic ties, with Japan beginning to develop its own unique cultural path from the 9th century CE onwards.

          古代日本和中国的关系由来已久，在某些时期，两国政治、宗教和文化习俗的交流十分频繁。中国是一个更古老的国家，也是一个更发达的国家，它向日本传递了一系列的思想与技术，包括水稻种植、文字、佛教、中央集权的政府模式、公务员考试、寺庙建筑、服装、艺术、文学、音乐和饮食习惯。双方的贸易关系大大超过了文化和外交关系，从公元9世纪起，日本开始发展自己独特的文化道路。

早期接触

At the end of the Jomon Period, from around 400 BCE (or even earlier), Japan's first foreign contact was in the form of migrants who began to arrive from continental Asia, especially the Korean peninsula, probably driven by the wars caused by Chinese expansion and between rival kingdoms. They brought with them new pottery, bronze, iron, and improved metalworking techniques which produced more efficient farming tools and better weaponry and armour.

          在绳文时代末期，从公元前400年左右（甚至更早）开始，日本的第一次对外接触是以移民的形式出现的，他们开始从亚洲大陆，特别是朝鲜半岛来到日本，可能是受到中国扩张和敌对王国之间的战争的推动。他们带来了新的陶器、青铜器、铁器和改进的金属加工技术，生产出更有效的农具和更好的武器与盔甲。

At a political level, Japan was beginning its first attempts at international relations (kokusai kankei) by the end of the Yayoi Period (c. 300 BCE or earlier to c. 250 CE). According to the c. 82 CE Han Shu ('History Of Han'), envoys and tribute were sent to the Chinese commanderies in northern Korea by the Wa, as the fledgeling confederation of small states in southern and western Japan was then known, the most important of which was Yamato. This is the earliest textual reference to Japan. A second early Chinese source is the 297 CE Wei Chih ('History of Wei'). The first tribute missions to China are recorded in 57 and 107 CE. One Japanese ruler known to have sent embassies to Chinese territory (238, 243, and c. 248 CE) and the most famous figure of the period was Queen Himiko (r. c. 189-248 CE). During the subsequent Kofun Period (c. 250 CE - 538 CE) envoys continued to be sent to China: in 425 CE, 478 CE and then eleven more up to 502 CE. Yamato Japan was slowly establishing an international diplomatic presence.

          在政治层面上，日本在弥生时代（约公元前300年或更早，至约公元250年）结束时开始首次尝试建立国际关系（Kokusai kankei）。根据约公元82年的《汉书》，和族（当时日本南部和西部刚成立的小国联盟，其中最重要的是大和）向朝鲜北部的中国统帅部派遣了使节，并带去了贡品。这是最早的关于日本的文字记载。第二个早期的中国资料是公元297年的《魏志》（《魏国史》）。第一次向中国进贡的任务记录在公元57年和107年。当时的日本统治者向中国领土派遣了使团（公元238年、243年和约248年），这一时期最著名的人物是卑弥呼女王（约公元189-248年）。在随后的古坟时期（约公元250年-公元538年），日本继续向中国派遣使节：公元425年、公元478年，然后到公元502年，又有11次到访记录。大和日本正在慢慢地建立国际外交关系。

飞鸟时代与佛教

The Asuka Period (538-710 CE) saw a stepping up of cultural exchange with the introduction of laws and penal codes based on those in China, the creation of a permanent capital city, and the nationalisation of land. There was also the introduction of Buddhism to Japan sometime in the 6th century CE, traditionally in 552 CE. It was actually introduced by a Korean monk but was seen as a Chinese faith and was officially adopted by Emperor Yomei (r. 585-587 CE). Buddhism reinforced the idea of a layered society with different levels of social status, with the emperor very much at the top and protected by the Four Guardian Kings of Buddhist law. The aristocracy could also conveniently claim that they enjoyed their privileged position in society because they had accumulated merit in a previous life.

          飞鸟时代（公元538-710年），随着基于中国的法律和刑法的引入，文化交流的加强，永久性首都的建立，以及土地的国有化。在公元6世纪的某个时候，佛教也被引入日本，传统上是在公元552年。它实际上是由一个韩国僧侣传入的，但被视为是中国的一种信仰，并被用明天皇（公元585-587年）正式采纳。佛教加强了具有不同社会地位层次的社会理念，皇帝在很大程度上处于顶端，并受到佛教法律中四大护法王的保护。贵族们也可以很方便地声称，他们在社会上享有特权地位是因为他们在前世积累了功德。

The adoption of Buddhism, it was hoped, would be looked on favourably by the more advanced neighbouring cultures of Korea and China and enhance Japan's reputation as a rising civilised nation in East Asia. It was for the same reason that Chinese conventions of court etiquette, formal address and titles, and the ceremonies of drinking tea and eating habits were also copied. Once officially adopted, monks, scholars, and students were regularly sent to China to learn the tenets of Buddhism in more depth and bring back that knowledge, along with art and even sometimes relics, for the benefit of the Japanese people.

          人们希望佛教的采用会被朝鲜和中国这些更先进的邻国文化所看好，并提高日本作为东亚崛起的文明国家的声誉。正是出于同样的原因，中国的宫廷礼仪、正式称呼和头衔，以及饮茶仪式和饮食习惯也被逐一复制。僧侣、学者和学生定期被派往中国，更深入地学习佛教的教义，并将这些知识和艺术，有时甚至是文物带回来，以造福日本人民。

Buddhism continued to evolve as a faith in both India and China with new sects developing which eventually made their way to Japan via monks who studied abroad. Two of the most noted scholar monks were Kukai (774-835 CE) and Saicho (767-822 CE), who founded the Shingon and Tendai sects respectively. Another important monk was Ennin (c. 793-864 CE) who studied esoteric Buddhism in China for nine years and brought back to Japan these new ideas, original texts, mandalas, and ritual objects.

           佛教作为一种信仰在印度和中国继续发展，新的教派不断发展，最终通过留学的僧侣传到了日本。最著名的两位学者僧侣是空海（公元774-835年）和最澄（公元767-822年），他们分别创立了真言宗和天台宗。另一位重要的僧人是圆仁（约公元793-864年），他在中国学习了九年的真言陀罗尼宗（唐密），并将这些新的思想、原始文本、曼陀罗和仪式物品带回了日本。

外交使团

Prince Shotoku, who ruled as regent on behalf of Empress Suiko from 594 until his death in 622 CE, was a great promoter of ties with China and was a keen advocate of all things Chinese from chopsticks to Buddhism. His famous Seventeen Article Constitution of 604 CE was heavily influenced by Taoist, Confucian, and Buddhist ideas. Shotoku also sent official embassies to the Sui court in China from c. 607 CE and then throughout the 7th century CE. There would be 19 state-sponsored missions sent to China between 607 and 839 CE. The missions were led by a high-ranked court official who was accompanied by councillors, scholars, monks, artists, doctors, musicians, diviners, scribes, and interpreters. Thus each embassy could include several hundred people. The important officials had their expenses met by their hosts. 'Tribute' was given and gifts were received in return, especially paintings and books.

          圣德太子从594年开始作为摄政王代表推古天皇执政，直到公元622年去世，他是与中国关系的巨大推动者，热衷于从筷子到佛教的所有中国事物。他在公元604年制定的著名的《十七条宪法》在很大程度上受到道家、儒家和佛教思想的影响。从公元607年起，圣德还向中国的隋朝朝廷派遣了官方使团，在整个公元7世纪都是如此。在公元607年至839年期间，共有19个国家资助的使团被派往中国。这些使团通常由一名高级宫廷官员率领，随行人员包括政府官员、学者、僧侣、艺术家、医生、音乐家、占卜师、文学家和翻译。因此，每个使团多达几百人。重要官员的费用由他们的主人支付。到达中国后，使团会献上“贡品”，并收到礼物作为回报，特别是绘画和书籍。

Artists copied what works they could to take home as reference works, musicians paid for lessons from famous teachers, and scholars (typically monks) studied under celebrated religious masters. Doctors acquired the arts of acupuncture, moxibustion, massage, and exorcism. Students would spend longer and not return with the main embassy. Studying for several years, their costs were, in most cases, also met by the Chinese government. Those who did take the time to study seriously in China were often rewarded with high positions on their return to Japan, becoming government advisors or heads of institutions such as Nara's university where Confucian principles were taught and the courses in Chinese literature and law were the most popular. Monks would continue to establish and head their own sects of Buddhism which became immensely popular as their new knowledge allowed them to usurp the position of existing schools and abbots.

          艺术家们复制他们可以带回家的作品作为参考，音乐家们花钱向名师学习，学者们（通常是僧侣）在著名的宗教大师手下学习。医生们获得了针灸、艾灸、按摩和驱魔的技术。学生们会花更多的时间，但不会随主要的使馆返回。学习几年后，他们的费用在大多数情况下也由中国政府支付。那些花时间在中国认真学习的学生在回到日本后往往会得到很高的职位，成为政府顾问或机构的负责人，如奈良的学院，在那里教授儒家思想，中国文学和法律课程是最受欢迎的。僧侣们建立和领导他们自己的佛教教派，这些教派在日本变得非常受欢迎，因为新知识使他们能够篡夺现有学者和高僧的地位。

Throughout the Asuka Period (538-710 CE) Japanese literature and music followed Chinese models as artists brought back ideas from mainland Asia. Similarly, architectural styles came from China. The architecture of the public buildings of Nara and its successor as capital Heiankyo (Kyoto) followed Chinese models with most buildings for public administration having crimson columns supporting green tiled roofs. Heiankyo was laid out on a regular grid plan with right angled streets creating regular-sized blocks along the Chinese model of the Western Capital at Ch'ang-an, just as Nara had been. The royal palace followed Chinese ideas, and the city even had an Academy of Chinese Learning (Daigaku-ryo). In contrast, private homes, storage houses, and farm buildings continued to be built according to the Japanese architectural tradition.

          在整个飞鸟时代（公元538-710年），日本的文学和音乐都遵循中国的模式，因为艺术家们从亚洲大陆带回了一些想法。同样，建筑风格也来自中国。奈良及其后的首都平安京（京都）的公共建筑遵循中国的模式，大多数公共行政建筑都有深红色的柱子，支撑着绿色的瓦片屋顶。平安京是按照中国的首都长安的模式，用直角的街道形成规则大小的街区来布置的，就像奈良一样。王宫遵循中国的理念，城中甚至有一个大学寮（Daigaku-ryo）。相比之下，私人住宅、仓库和农场建筑则继续按照日本的建筑传统建造。

China did send embassies occasionally to Japan and missions are recorded to Kyushu, Nara, and Heiankyo. These, though, were not about the Chinese learning from Japan but rather an official seal of approval of Japan's acceptance as a 'tribute' nation. The Chinese brought valuable gifts and, even more importantly, the merchants who were able to establish lucrative and long-lasting trade relations with their Japanese counterparts. Indeed, the commerce between the two nations would far outlast the diplomatic relations.

          中国确实偶尔会向日本派遣使团，并且有记录显示，中国向九州、奈良和平安京派遣了使团。不过，这些并不是中国人向日本学习，而是对日本作为一个“朝贡”国家的认可，是官方认证的一种方式。中国人带来了宝贵的礼物，更重要的是，他们的商人能够与日本同行建立有利可图的长期贸易关系。事实上，两国之间的贸易关系远远超过了外交关系。

失败的关系

Relations with Japan's mainland neighbours were not always amicable. The Silla kingdom, a longtime rival of Baekje in the Korean peninsula finally overran its neighbour in 660 CE with the help of a massive Chinese Tang naval force. A rebel Baekje force persuaded Japan to send 800 ships under the command of Abe no Hirafu to aid their attempt to regain control of their kingdom, but the joint force was defeated at the Battle of Baekgang (Hakusonko) at the mouth of the Geum/Paekchon River in 663 CE. The success of the Unified Silla Kingdom resulted in another wave of immigrants entering Japan from the collapsed Baekje and Goguryeo kingdoms. Following their defeat, Japan could have been invaded by either Silla, the Tang, or both. A large fortification was built at Dazaifu in the south-east of Japan, but the threat of occupation never materialised.

          日本与大陆邻国的关系并不总是友好的。新罗王国是百济在朝鲜半岛的一个长期竞争对手，在中国唐朝一支庞大的海军部队的帮助下，终于在公元660年征服了它的邻国。一支反叛的百济部队说服日本派出800艘船，在阿倍比罗夫的指挥下，帮助他们试图重新控制自己的王国，但这支联合部队在公元663年位于金/白川河口的白江口（Hakusonko）战役中被击败。统一新罗王国的成功导致另一波移民从崩溃的百济和高句丽王国进入日本。百济战败后，日本可能被新罗、唐或两者同时入侵。日本在东南部的太宰府建造了一个大型防御工事，但占领的威胁从未实现。

平安时代和关系的冷却

During the Heian Period (794-1185 CE), following a final embassy to the Tang court in 838 CE, there were no longer formal diplomatic relations with China as Japan became somewhat isolationist without any necessity to defend its borders or embark on territorial conquest. Around 900 CE, the great Tang Dynasty collapsed and China became a disunity of competing states. This fact, the danger of sailing to the continent, and an increasing reaction against Chinese influence with a corresponding desire for the Japanese to exert their own political development meant that diplomatic missions petered out between the two states.

          在平安时代（公元794-1185年），继公元838年最后一次出使唐朝后，日本与中国不再有正式的外交关系，因为日本变得有些孤立，没有必要保卫其边界或开始领土征服。公元900年左右，伟大的唐朝崩溃了，中国变成了一个由竞争性国家组成的不统一体。唐朝灭亡，意味着航行到大陆的危险，以及对中国政治格局变化越来越大的感触和日本人对自己的政治发展的相应愿望，意味着两国之间的外交频率逐渐减少。

繁荣的贸易

Although political missions declined, sporadic trade and cultural exchanges continued with China, as before. Goods imported from China were largely luxury items, but the list is diverse and included medicines, perfumes, worked silk fabrics, damask, brocades, ceramics, weapons, armour, cloves, musk, lapis lazuli, cinnabar, dyes, and musical instruments. Books came too, a catalogue dating to 891 CE lists more than 1,700 Chinese titles made available in Japan which cover history, poetry, court protocols, medicine, laws, and Confucian classics. Japan sent in return pearls, gold dust, silver, amber, agate, raw silk, camelia oil, mercury, sulphur, paper, and gilt lacquerware. Still, despite these exchanges, the lack of regular missions between the two states from the 10th century CE meant that the Heian Period overall saw a diminishing in the influence of Chinese culture, which meant that Japanese culture began to find its own unique path of development.

           虽然政治交流减少了，但与中国的零星贸易和文化交流仍一如既往。从中国进口的商品主要是奢侈品，但清单上的商品多种多样，包括药品、香水、加工过的丝织品、锦缎、陶瓷、武器、盔甲、丁香、麝香、青金石、朱砂、染料和乐器。书籍也来了，一份可追溯到公元891年的目录列出了1700多种中国书籍，其中包括历史、诗歌、宫廷礼仪、医学、法律和儒家经典。日本送来的回报是珍珠、金粉、银、琥珀、玛瑙、生丝、山茶油、水银、硫磺、纸张和鎏金漆器。尽管有这些交流，但从公元10世纪开始，两国之间缺乏定期的访问，这意味着平安时代总体上看到中国文化的影响在减少，也意味着日本文化开始找到它自己独特的发展道路。

In the 13th century CE, at the very end of the ancient period, the Mongols overran China and then set their sights on Japan. When Japan refused to become a subject nation of the mighty Kublai Khan's empire, a massive invasion force was assembled. Twice, in 1274 and 1281 CE, the Mongol fleets were blown back by typhoons - what would become known as the divine winds or kamikaze, sent by the gods to protect Japan in the moment of its greatest danger. The nation had survived and was now ready to flourish in the Medieval period and pursue its own independent and unique cultural destiny.

           在公元13世纪，古代时期的末期，蒙古人占领了中国，然后把目光投向了日本。当日本拒绝成为强大的忽必烈帝国的臣民时，一支大规模的蒙古入侵部队被召集起来。在公元1274年和1281年，蒙古舰队两次被台风吹回，这就是后来被称为“神风”的东西，神明在日本最危险的时刻派来保护日本的安全。日本幸存了下来，它在中世纪时期蓬勃发展，追求自己独立和独特的文化命运。

参考书目：

Beasley, W.G. The Japanese Experience. University of California Press, 2000.

Ebrey, P.B. Pre-Modern East Asia. Cengage Learning, 2013.

Henshall, K. Historical Dictionary of Japan to 1945. Scarecrow Press, 2013.

Mason, R.H.P. A History of Japan. Tuttle Publishing, 1997.

Sansom, G. A History of Japan to 1334. Stanford University Press, 1958.

von Verschuer, C. "Japan's Foreign Relations 600 to 1200 A.D.: A Translation from Zenrin Kokuhο̄ki." Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 54, No. 1 (Spring, 1999), pp. 1-39.

Wang Zhenping, A.D. "Speaking with a Forked Tongue: Diplomatic Correspondence between China and Japan, 238- 608." Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 114, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1994), pp. 23-32.

Whitney Hall, J. The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press, 1999.

作者：Mark Cartwright

          驻意大利的历史作家。他的主要兴趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神话和发现所有文明的共同思想。他拥有政治哲学硕士学位，是《世界历史百科全书》的出版总监。

原文网址：https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1085/ancient-japanese--chinese-relations/