【简译】欧洲对香料群岛的发现与征服
Clove, nutmeg, and mace are native to only a handful of tiny islands in the middle of the vast Indonesian archipelago – cloves on five Maluku Islands (the Moluccas) about 1250 km (778 mi) west of New Guinea, and nutmeg on the ten Banda Islands approximately 2,000 km (1,243 mi) east of Java. Despite their popularity in European cuisine, the origin of the spices was unknown to Europeans until the early 16th century.
丁香、肉豆蔻和梅斯原产于广阔的印度尼西亚群岛中间少数几个小岛。丁香在新几内亚以西约1250公里（778英里）的马鲁古群岛（摩鹿加群岛，由五个小岛组成），肉豆蔻在爪哇以东约2000公里（1243英里）的班达群岛（由十个小火山岛组成）。尽管这些香料在欧洲菜肴中很受欢迎，但直到16世纪初，欧洲人还不知道这些香料从何而来。
The secret was finally broken by the Portuguese in 1512, soon after they discovered the route to the Indian Ocean. After beating back a threat from the Spanish, the Portuguese Empire took over most of the spice trade and held sway for almost a century. Eventually, the Dutch and English made it a three-way struggle for control, which the Dutch won, and they dominated the spice trade until the late 18th century.
这个秘密在1512年葡萄牙人发现通往印度洋的路线后不久被揭晓。在挫败了西班牙人的威胁后，葡萄牙帝国接管了大部分香料贸易，并在近一个世纪内保持着对香料的控制。最终，荷兰人和英国人使之成为三方争夺控制权的斗争，荷兰人赢了，他们主导了香料贸易，直到18世纪末。
第一批抵达香料群岛的欧洲人
For over a thousand years, the entry of clove, nutmeg, and mace into world trade was dependent on Indonesian sailors, who carried them to the Malay Peninsula, Java, and Sumatra, where Indian and Arabian sailors accessed them and distributed them across the rest of the Indian Ocean. The Arabs also carried the spices through the Red Sea to Alexandria or via the Persian Gulf to Levantine ports, from where Venetian traders took them to Europe. The enterprising Arabs held the location of the Spice Islands secret from the Europeans for centuries, keeping the price exorbitant.
一千多年来，丁香、肉豆蔻和梅斯进入世界贸易依赖于印度尼西亚水手，他们把香料运到马来半岛、爪哇和苏门答腊，印度和阿拉伯水手在那里购买它们，并把它们分销到印度洋各地。阿拉伯人还将香料通过红海运到亚历山大，或通过波斯湾运到黎凡特港口，威尼斯商人从那里将它们运往欧洲。富有进取心的阿拉伯人将香料岛的位置对欧洲人保密了几个世纪，使香料价格在欧洲高居不下。
It was not until the early 1500s that the Europeans learned whence the spices came, not long after Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) discovered the route around Africa to India and Southeast Asia. The Portuguese Viceroy of India (Estado da India), Albuquerque, was told of the Spice Islands by sailors in the port of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula, which had been for centuries the central meeting ground of Indian, Arab, and Chinese merchants. Albuquerque hired local guides and sent ships on an exploratory mission under the command of António de Abreu and his lieutenant Francisco Serrão. They arrived in the Bandas in 1512 and were able to fill the hulls of their ships with cloves, nutmeg, and mace.
直到15世纪初，在瓦斯科·达伽马（1469-1524）发现了绕过非洲到印度和东南亚的路线后不久，欧洲人才知道香料的原产地。葡萄牙印度总督阿尔布克尔克从马来半岛的马六甲港的水手那里得知了香料群岛；几个世纪以来，马六甲港一直是印度、阿拉伯和中国商人的主要聚集地。阿尔布克尔克雇用了当地的向导，并派船在亚比尔鲁和他的副官弗朗西斯科·塞拉奥的指挥下进行探索。他们于1512年抵达班达斯，并在船上装满了丁香、肉豆蔻和梅斯。
Abreu was then successful in returning to Malacca, but Serrão's overstuffed ship floundered and broke up on a reef. He and his shipwrecked crew were rescued and brought to the Maluku Island of Ternate by the local Sultan Sirrullah, who hoped to use Serrão to ally himself with the powerful Portuguese and tip the balance of power in the area. At that time, Ternate was in fierce competition with the nearby island of Tidor. Serrão became Sirrullah's personal advisor, led a band of mercenaries, and remained on the island until his death.
亚比尔鲁成功地返回了马六甲，但塞拉奥那艘装得过满的船却触礁沉没了。他和遇难船员被救起，被当地的苏丹Sirrullah带到了马鲁古岛的特尔纳特（德那第），他希望通过塞拉奥与强大的葡萄牙人结盟，改变该地区的权力平衡。当时，特尔纳特岛与附近的提多岛竞争激烈。塞拉奥成为瑟鲁拉的私人顾问，率领一队雇佣兵，并一直留在岛上，直到他去世。
The second group of Europeans to arrive in the Spice Islands were the remnants of Ferdinand Magellan's (c. 1480-1521) crew after he had lost his life in the Philippines. Their coming began a competition between Portugal and Spain for control of the Spice Islands, whose legal ownership was very much up in the air. The Treaty of Tordesillas, signed in 1494 between the two Iberian countries, had divided any newly discovered lands between them along a meridian west of the Cape Verde Islands but did not establish a line of demarcation on the other side of the world. This meant that both countries could lay claim to the Spice Islands, as long as Portugal traveled there from the east and Spain from the west.
第二批到达香料群岛的欧洲人是费尔南多·麦哲伦（约1480-1521）在菲律宾丧生后，舰队残余的船员。他们的到来开始了葡萄牙和西班牙之间对香料群岛控制权的竞争，而香料群岛的法律所有权是悬而未决的。这两个伊比利亚国家于1494年签署的《托德西利亚斯条约》将任何新发现的土地沿佛得角群岛以西的子午线划分，但没有在世界的另一端确立一条分界线。这意味着，只要葡萄牙从东边去，西班牙从西边去，两个国家都可以对香料群岛所有权提出要求。
Magellan's remaining two ships sailed on after his death, following a rather haphazard route towards Tidor, and arrived there on 5 November 1521. The Victoria continued towards home on 21 December, while the Trinidad lingered for repairs. Both ships were in dismal condition, and the Victoria barely survived the passage around the stormy tip of Africa, and along the way half its crew died of scurvy and starvation. On 6 September 1522, the remaining crew finally made it back to Spain. By then, only 18 of the original 270 men who had left with Magellan remained. Still, there were enough spices in the hold for the journey to be highly profitable.
麦哲伦死后，剩下的两艘船继续航行，他们沿着一条相当杂乱的路线驶向蒂多雷，并于1521年11月5日抵达。12月21日，"维多利亚号 "继续向家驶去，而 "特立尼达号 "则在修理。两艘船的状况都很糟糕，"维多利亚号 "在绕过非洲的暴风口后勉强幸存，沿途一半的船员死于坏血病和饥饿。1522年9月6日，剩下的船员终于回到了西班牙。当时，与麦哲伦一起出发的原270人中只剩下18人。不过，船舱里有足够的香料，使这次旅行有了很大的收益。
The Trinidad, captained by Gonzalo Gómez de Espinosa, waited until 16 April 1522 to leave. Fearing the route around the Cape, the Trinidad made its way north searching for easterlies until the battering of frigid storms, starvation and scurvy forced de Espinosa to turn back to the Maluku Islands seven months later. As he approached Ternate, he found to his horror that a fleet of seven Portuguese ships led by Antonio de Brito had arrived, looking to take control of the Spice Islands.
由贡萨洛·戈麦斯·德·埃斯皮诺萨（Gonzalo Gómez de Espinosa）担任船长的 "特立尼达"号一直等到1522年4月16日才离开。由于害怕绕过海角的路线，"特立尼达"号一路向北寻找东风，直到七个月后，寒冷的风暴、饥饿和坏血病的打击迫使埃斯皮诺萨折回马鲁古群岛。当他接近特尔纳特时，他惊恐地发现一支由Antonio de Brito率领的七艘葡萄牙船队已经抵达，葡萄牙人希望控制香料群岛。
De Brito sent an armed party to capture the Trinidad:
His soldiers boarded Trinidad expecting to overwhelm the crew but were repelled by the grievous spectacle of men near death, a foul and unhealthy stench that no one dared to brave, and a ship on the verge of sinking. In spite of the crew's condition, De Brito took them as captives and made de Espinosa and his debilitated crew build a fortress at Ternate with the timbers of the Victoria. They were then further exported as forced laborers at several ports across the Indian Ocean. Only commander Espinosa and two other crew members ever got back to Spain. (Bergreen, 180)
Antonio de Brito派出一支武装队伍去占领特立尼达号：
他的士兵们登上特立尼达号，期望能压制船员，但却被眼前的悲惨景象劝退了，船上的人濒临死亡，恶臭难闻，没有人敢冒这个险，而这艘船也濒临沉没。尽管船员们的状况不佳，但Antonio de Brito还是把他们当作了俘虏，并让埃斯皮诺萨和他虚弱的船员用维多利亚号的木头在特尔纳特建造了一座堡垒。然后，他们又被作为强迫劳动者运往印度洋的几个港口。只有指挥官埃斯皮诺萨和其他两名船员回到了西班牙。(伯格林，180)
葡萄牙人控制特尔纳特岛的时期
The sultan of Ternate allowed the Portuguese to build a fort in 1522 and establish a trading colony, but the relationship between the Ternates and Portuguese quickly grew strained. Over the next half-century, a series of Portuguese governors would be sent to this distant outpost who grew increasingly greedy and brutal. The sultans of Ternate continued to serve at the whims of the Portuguese for decades, but by the mid-16th century began to assert themselves. One major figure was Sultan Hairun who reigned from 1535 to 1570. He started as a Portuguese puppet, and at one point even converted to Christianity, but he became increasingly agitated by the brutality of the Portuguese and eventually aligned himself with the Muslims of Tidor. He was assassinated in 1570 and was replaced by his son Babullah, who led an uprising supported by the Sultanate of Tidor and Muslims from as far away as Aceh and Turkey. He and his followers laid siege to the Portuguese fort and after four years finally took it and rid themselves of the Portuguese. From then on Ternate was a strong, fiercely Islamic, and anti-Portuguese state.
特尔纳特的苏丹允许葡萄牙人在1522年建造一座堡垒并建立贸易殖民地，但特尔纳特人和葡萄牙人之间的关系很快就变得紧张起来。在接下来的半个世纪里，许多葡萄牙总督被派往这个遥远的前哨站，他们变得越来越贪婪和野蛮。几十年来，特尔纳特的苏丹们继续听从葡萄牙人的安排，但到了16世纪中期，他们开始坚持自己的立场。一个主要人物是海伦苏丹，他从1535年到1570年在位。他一开始是葡萄牙人的傀儡，甚至一度皈依基督教，但他对葡萄牙人的残暴行为越来越不满，最终与提多的穆斯林结盟。他在1570年被暗杀，由他的儿子巴布拉取代，他领导的起义得到了提多苏丹国以及远在亚齐和土耳其的穆斯林的支持。他和他的追随者们围攻了葡萄牙人的堡垒，四年后终于拿下了堡垒，并摆脱了葡萄牙人的控制。从那时起，特尔纳特成为一个强大的、激烈的伊斯兰教国家，并对葡萄牙保持敌意。
西班牙方面的努力
Soon after the arrival of the Victoria in Spain, Charles I of Spain (r. 1516-1556) sent a second expedition to the Spice Islands, led by García Jofre de Loaísa. They were given three goals:
1. seek and rescue the Trinidad, which had not yet returned
2. colonize the Spice Islands
3. find the location of the mythical land of Ophir, mentioned in the Bible as the source of the silver, gold, and gems used to decorate Solomon's Temple.
维多利亚号抵达西班牙后不久，西班牙查理一世（r. 1516-1556）就向香料群岛派出了第二支探险队，由加西亚·霍夫雷·代·罗阿西率领。他们有三个目标：
1.寻找并拯救尚未返回的特立尼达号
2.殖民香料群岛
3.找到神话中奥菲尔大陆的位置，《圣经》中提到它是用来装饰所罗门圣殿的金银和宝石的来源地。
Loaísa sailed south along the African coastline, then west to Brazil and down the continent before heading to the Spice Islands around the tip of South America. His fleet suffered extreme weather in the Strait of Magellan, and two ships were lost. The raging storms continued in the Pacific and four more ships got separated. Only one galleon, the Santa Maria de la Victoria, reached the Spice Islands in September 1526, and by this time Loaísa had died. The survivors were able to establish a fortress on Tidor but had to abandon their now unseaworthy ship, leaving them no way to get news back to Spain.
罗阿西沿非洲海岸线向南航行，然后向西到巴西，沿着大陆向南航行，然后前往香料群岛。他的船队在麦哲伦海峡遭遇极端天气，两艘船丢失。太平洋上的风暴继续肆虐，又有四艘船失散。只有一艘大帆船，即圣玛丽亚·德拉·维多利亚号，于1526年9月抵达香料群岛，此时罗阿西已经去世。幸存者在蒂多雷岛建立一个堡垒，但不得不放弃船只，这使他们没有办法将消息传回西班牙。
With no news of the Loaísa expedition, Charles sent another fleet to the Maluku Islands in 1526 commanded by Sebastian Cabot, who got no further than the west coast of South America before he quit the search and instead explored the interior of the Rio de la Plata. Charles then ordered Hernán Cortés in New Spain (Mexico) to send a rescue mission. Cortés sent a three-ship fleet, but only one of these made it to Tidor, and while it did find the survivors, it could not find favorable winds to get back across the Pacific and was captured by the Portuguese.
由于没有罗阿西探险队的消息，查尔斯于1526年向马鲁古群岛派出了另一支舰队，由塞巴斯蒂安·卡伯特指挥。他没有走到南美洲的西海岸，就放弃了搜寻，转而探索拉普拉塔河。查尔斯随后命令新西班牙（墨西哥）的埃尔南·科尔特斯 派出一个救援团。科尔特斯派出了一支三艘船的舰队，但其中只有一艘到达了蒂多德岛，虽然他确实找到了幸存者，但船只无法找到有利的风向来穿越太平洋，这艘船被葡萄牙人俘虏了。
Finally, with several armadas lost or unreported, the Spanish sovereign reached the conclusion that the Spice Islands were not worth his effort, and in 1529 decided to make a deal with the Portuguese. In the resulting Treaty of Zaragoza, the Spaniards sold their rights to the Maluku Islands to the Portuguese for 350,000 ducats, and a dividing line between territories was fixed at 17° east of the Maluku Islands. There was an escape clause that allowed the Spanish to have the islands back if they reimbursed the Portuguese, but this never happened. In 1580, the Iberian Union joined the two kingdoms and their Indian Ocean colonies together.
最后，随着几支舰队的丢失或失去音信，西班牙君主得出结论，香料群岛不值得他付出更多的努力，于是在1529年决定与葡萄牙人进行交易。在由此达成的《萨拉戈萨条约》中，西班牙人以35万金币的价格将其对马鲁古群岛的权利卖给了葡萄牙人，领土之间的分界线被固定在马鲁古群岛以东17°。有一个免责条款，条约允许西班牙人在偿还葡萄牙人的情况下拿回这些岛屿，但这从未发生。1580年，伊比利亚联盟将两个王国和它们的印度洋殖民地连在一起。
荷兰人的征服与荷兰东印度公司
For a century, the Portuguese Empire reigned supreme in the Indian Ocean. It was not until 1595 that nine Amsterdam merchants joined together and organized the first Dutch expedition. They chose Cornelis de Houtman to lead it and provided him with four ships. The plan was to follow the traditional Portuguese route around the Cape of Good Hope and then head to Bantam, the main pepper port of Java, and then search for the Spice Islands. The whole affair proved to be a major fiasco, filled with bloody infighting. They never made it to the Spice Islands and brought back very few spices.
一个世纪以来，葡萄牙帝国在印度洋称王称霸。直到1595年，九个阿姆斯特丹商人联合起来，组织了第一次荷兰探险队。他们选择了科内利斯·代·豪特曼（Cornelis de Houtman）来领导这次探险，并为他提供了四艘船。他的计划是沿着传统的葡萄牙路线绕过好望角，然后前往爪哇的主要胡椒港口班丹，然后寻找香料群岛。事实证明，整个事件是一场大惨败，充满了血腥的内讧。他们从未到达过香料群岛，带回的香料也很少。
A second expedition was sent out in 1598 with six ships, led by Jacob van Neck, with Wybrand van Warwijck and Jacob van Heemskerk, each commanding a ship. Van Neck was a shrewd manager and returned to the Netherlands in July 1599 with four ships loaded with spices. Van Warwijck's ship set off for Ternate, while van Heemskerk's sailed to the Banda Islands. Van Warwijck reached Ternate without incident, was received well, loaded his ship with spices, and headed home, reaching Amsterdam in September 1600. Van Heemskerk got a much cooler reception; however, with lavish gifts and diplomacy, he finally won the trust of the Bandanese and was able to fill his ship with nutmeg. He arrived safely home in late 1600.
第二次远征是在1598年，由雅各布·科内利松·范·内克率领的六艘船出征，威布兰德·范·沃韦克和雅各布·范黑姆斯克尔克各指挥一艘船。雅各布·科内利松·范·内克是个精明的管理者，他于1599年7月带着四艘装满香料的船回到了荷兰。威布兰德·范·沃韦克的船出发前往特尔纳特，而雅各布·范黑姆斯克尔克的船则驶向班达群岛。威布兰德·范·沃韦克顺利抵达特尔纳特，在那里他们受到了良好的接待，并将船装满了香料，然后返航，于1600年9月抵达阿姆斯特丹。雅各布·范黑姆斯克尔克得到的待遇要冷淡得多；然而，凭借豪华的礼物和外交手段，他终于赢得了班达人的信任，并得以在船上装满肉豆蔻。他于1600年末安全地回到了荷兰。
Following van Neck's successful venture, dozens of additional expeditions made the trip to the Spice Islands. To consolidate resources, the government formed the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC) in 1602, which was given the power to govern the East and was allowed to run its own shipyards, build forts, keep armies, and make treaties. The first VOC fleet sailed on 18 December 1603, and within a few years, the Company had established a network of hundreds of bases across Asia. By 1605 there were factories on Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Spice Islands, the Malay Peninsula, and the mainland of India. The whole operation was ruled by a Governor-General who operated essentially as a head of state.
在雅各布·科内利松·范·内克的成功冒险之后，又有几十支探险队前往香料群岛。为了整合资源，政府于1602年成立了荷兰东印度公司（Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie或VOC），该公司被赋予管理东方的权力，并被允许经营自己的造船厂、建造堡垒、保持军队和签订条约。第一支VOC舰队于1603年12月18日起航，在几年内，该公司在亚洲各地建立了一个由数百个基地组成的网络。到1605年，在爪哇、苏门答腊、婆罗洲、香料群岛、马来半岛和印度本土都有工厂。整个行动由一位总督管理，他基本上是以国家元首的身份来运作的。
葡萄牙人的退出
In 1604, the Englishman Henry Middleton was sent to the Indian Ocean with four ships; he arrived at the west Javan port of Bantam on 21 December. Two of the ships were loaded with pepper and sent back home, while Middleton and the remaining two ships traveled to Ambon Island in the Moluccas. Upon arrival, Middleton got permission to trade by convincing the local Portuguese commander that Kings James I of England (r. 1603-1625) and Philip III of Spain (aka Philip II of Portugal, r. 1598-1621) had signed a peace treaty. This was indeed true, but Middleton could not have known this, as the treaty was signed five months after he had gone to sea. Just as they were about to begin loading the ships, an ominous sight appeared on the horizon – a VOC armada. The Dutch had sent a fleet to challenge the Portuguese control of the island, and the English had stumbled into the middle. The English beat a hasty retreat, while the Portuguese suffered a full-scale invasion. Little did Middleton know that he was about to fall into the middle of another Dutch–Portuguese confrontation.
1604年，英国人亨利·米德尔顿被派往印度洋，他有四艘船；他们于12月21日抵达爪哇西部的班丹港。其中两艘船装载了胡椒并送回国内，而米德尔顿和其余两艘船则前往摩鹿加群岛的安汶岛。抵达后，米德尔顿说服当地的葡萄牙指挥官，英格兰国王詹姆斯一世（1603-1625年）和西班牙国王菲利普三世（又称葡萄牙国王菲利普二世，1598-1621年）已经签署了和平条约，从而获得了贸易许可。这确实是事实，但米德尔顿不可能知道这一点，因为该条约是在他出海后五个月签署的。就在他们准备开始装船的时候，一个不祥的景象出现在地平线上——一支VOC舰队。荷兰人派了一支舰队来挑战葡萄牙人对该岛的控制，而英国人则跌跌撞撞地走到了中间。英国人匆忙撤退，而当地的葡萄牙人则遭遇了荷兰舰队的进攻。米德尔顿不知道，他即将陷入另一场荷兰和葡萄牙的对峙之中。
Middleton arrived at Tidore on 27 March just as the Dutch and their allies were about to attack. He was able to convince the Portuguese to allow him to fill his hulls with cloves by staying out of the war. A few days later, the Dutch did successfully take over the Spanish fort on Tidore and began the harassment of the Portuguese on Ternate. The Portuguese finally withdrew from the Maluku Islands in 1663, when it became clear that the cost of maintaining their strongholds exceeded the benefits.
米德尔顿于3月27日抵达蒂多德，当时荷兰人和他们的盟友正准备进攻。他通过不参与战争，说服了葡萄牙人允许他在船上装满丁香。几天后，荷兰人果然成功占领了蒂多德的西班牙堡垒，并开始对特尔纳特的葡萄牙人进行骚扰。葡萄牙人最终于1663年撤出了马鲁古群岛，因为维持其据点的成本显然超过了收益。
In 1607, Dutch admiral Pieter Willemszoon Verhoeff was sent with a fleet of 13 ships to capture Portuguese Malacca and then build a fort on the Banda Island of Neira. Both missions ended in failure. Verhoeff attacked Malacca but could not take the heavily fortified city. He then headed to the Banda Island of Neira. The leaders of the islands, the Orang Kaya, called a meeting to supposedly negotiate prices and instead ambushed him and two of his officers, decapitated them, and murdered another 46 Dutch soldiers. This ambush would be used repeatedly to justify Dutch oppression and ultimately the near extermination of the Bandanese. One of the men who survived the massacre was Jan Pieterszoon Coen, who carried at that time the modest title of assistant merchant. Upon his return to the Netherlands in 1610, Coen gave the company's directors a report on trade possibilities in Southeast Asia, and he would ultimately become the Director-General.
1607年，荷兰海军上将彼得·威廉姆斯·韦尔霍夫（Pieter Willemszoon Verhoeff）被派去占领葡萄牙的马六甲，然后在班达的内拉岛上建造一个堡垒。这两次任务都以失败告终。韦尔霍夫攻击了马六甲，但无法攻下这个防御森严的城市。然后，他前往内拉的班达岛。这些岛屿的领导人Orang Kaya召集了一次会议，据说是为了谈判价格，结果却伏击了韦尔霍夫和他的两名军官，并将他们斩首，另杀害了46名荷兰士兵。这次伏击事件将被反复用来论证荷兰人的压迫和最终班达人的灭绝事件。在这次屠杀中幸存下来的人之一是扬·彼得斯佐恩·库恩，他当时的头衔是助理商人，很不起眼。1610年回到荷兰后，库恩向公司的董事们提交了一份关于东南亚贸易可能性的报告，他最终成为总干事。
英国与荷兰的对峙
As Coen and the VOC worked to dominate the spice trade, the English tried desperately to keep a piece of the action for themselves. Coen had begun his reign as VOC director by transferring the VOC headquarters from Bantam to Jakarta and had converted the warehouse there into a fort. In 1618, Sir Thomas Dale was sent from England to break up Coen's growing monopoly, and in a pitched battle, the undermanned fleet of Coen was forced to flee to Ambon for reinforcements. While Coen was away, the sultan of Bantam also decided to enter the fray, forced the English to withdraw, and laid siege to the Dutch fort. When Coen returned in 1619, he was able to push the Bantam forces out of Jakarta, and then he burned the city to the ground. On its ashes, he built the new Dutch city of Batavia, which became the headquarters of the VOC in Southeast Asia.
在库恩和荷兰东印度公司努力主宰香料贸易的过程中，英国人拼命地想为自己保留一份基业。库恩在开始担任VOC主任时，将VOC总部从班丹转移到了雅加达，并将那里的仓库改造成了一个堡垒。1618年，托马斯·戴尔爵士从英国被派来打破库恩日益增长的垄断，在一场激战中，库恩兵力不足，舰队被迫逃往安汶寻求增援。在库恩不在的时候，班丹的苏丹也决定加入战局，迫使英国人撤退，并围攻荷兰人的堡垒。1619年，当库恩回来时，他得以将班丹的军队赶出雅加达，然后他将该城市烧成了灰烬。在它的灰烬上，他建立了荷兰的新城市巴达维亚，成为VOC在东南亚的总部。
While the English and Dutch were fighting over Jakarta, another battle was raging between them on the tiny Banda Island of Run. Captain Nathaniel Courthope had reached Run in 1616 and signed a contract with the locals who accepted James I as their sovereign. Under siege by the Dutch, Courthrope held out for 1,540 days before he was killed. Ironically, Coen received word that the Dutch and English leaders back home had reached an agreement in 1620 to cooperate in the East Indies. They were to leave each other's existing trade settlements alone and cooperate against common enemies. A frustrated Coen, however, let the battle over Run play out and named a huge swath of Java as the "Jakarta Kingdom" to keep it out of English hands.
当英国人和荷兰人在争夺雅加达的时候，他们之间的另一场战斗正在小小的班达岛伦岛（伦岛是印度尼西亚摩鹿加群岛班达群岛中最小的岛屿之一）上激烈展开。纳撒尼尔·考伯船长于1616年到达伦岛，与接受詹姆斯一世为其君主的当地人签订了一份合同。在荷兰人的围攻下，纳撒尼尔·考伯坚持了1540天才被杀死。具有讽刺意味的是，库恩收到消息说，荷兰和英国的领导人在1620年达成了一项协议，在东印度群岛进行合作。他们将互不干涉对方现有的贸易定居点，并合作对付共同的敌人。然而，心灰意冷的库恩让伦岛之战继续下去，并将爪哇的一大片土地命名为 "雅加达王国"，以防止其落入英国人手中。
In January 1621, Coen decided to make a full-scale conquest of the Banda Islands. Using Japanese mercenaries, the Dutch took the Island of Lonthor after suffering fierce local resistance that was supported by English-supplied cannon. In response, Coen, and the Dutch massacred thousands of inhabitants, replacing them with slaves from other islands and deporting some 800 inhabitants to Batavia. Only about 1,000 of the original 15,000 survived on the island.
1621年1月，库恩决定对班达群岛进行全面征服。荷兰人利用日本雇佣兵，在遭受了当地激烈的抵抗后，在英国人提供的大炮的支援下，占领了隆托尔岛。作为回应，库恩和荷兰人屠杀了数以千计的居民，用其他岛屿的奴隶代替他们，并将大约800名居民驱逐到巴达维亚。原来的15,000人中只有大约1,000人在岛上幸存下来。
At this point, Coen thought the best future strategy would be to completely colonize the East Indies with Dutch settlers, who would then handle the East India trade. To sell his plan to the VOC directors, he traveled back home in 1623. While there, he was hit with a major scandal, the so-called "Amboyna Massacre" where a group of Englishmen from the small settlement of Cambello in Ambon were taken into custody by the Dutch factors, questioned, tortured, and sentenced to death. They were suspected of working with the locals in a plot to take over the Dutch settlement. Coen was not directly involved, but he was held morally responsible as the leader of the VOC, and he was temporally forbidden to return to Batavia. It was not until 1627 that he was able to go back, traveling incognito, and he died of dysentery there in 1629.
此时，库恩认为未来最好的战略是用荷兰定居者完全殖民东印度群岛，然后由他们来处理东印度贸易。为了向VOC的董事们推销他的计划，他于1623年回国旅行。在那里，他遭遇了一个重大的丑闻，即所谓的 "安博纳大屠杀"，一群来自安汶的坎贝罗小定居点的英国人被荷兰因素羁押，被审问、折磨，并判处死刑。他们被怀疑与当地人合作，密谋接管荷兰定居点。库恩没有直接参与其中，但他作为VOC的领导人被追究道德责任，他被暂时禁止返回巴达维亚。直到1627年，他隐姓埋名，以旅行者的名义回去，并于1629年死于痢疾。
荷兰香料垄断的终结
Throughout the 17th and the early 18th century, the VOC held onto their near-monopoly in the clove trade through their ruthless stranglehold on the Banda Island trade. Nutmeg production in Tidore and Ternate also fell increasingly under their control. In 1652, the leaders of both islands agreed to a spice eradication program (extirpate), where they would allow, for an annual payment, the removal of all clove trees not owned by the VOC. This program was rigidly enforced by the Dutch who made regular expeditions that became notorious for their brutality.
在整个17世纪和18世纪初，VOC通过对班达岛贸易的无情扼制，几乎垄断了对丁香的贸易。提多和特尔纳特的肉豆蔻生产也受到荷兰人的影响。1652年，这两个岛屿的领导人同意了一项香料根除计划（extirpate），他们将允许每年支付一定的费用，清除所有不属于VOC的丁香树。这个计划由荷兰人严格执行，他们定期进行远征，因其残酷性而臭名昭著。
It was the French who finally broke the Dutch clove monopoly in 1770 when Pierre Poivre, a horticulturist and administrator, smuggled out some seedlings from the Spice Islands and planted them on the Isle de France (now Mauritius) and Isle Bourbon (now Réunion). In 1812, an Arab named Harmali bin Saleh transplanted cloves from Réunion to Zanzibar and established plantations which ultimately took over the bulk of world production. Zanzibar dominated the world market until 1964.
1770年，法国人终于打破了荷兰人对丁香的垄断，当时，园艺师和行政人员皮埃尔·波微从香料群岛偷运出一些幼苗，并将其种植在法兰西岛（现在的毛里求斯）和波旁岛（现在的留尼汪）。1812年，一位名叫哈马利·本·萨利赫的阿拉伯人将丁香从留尼汪岛移植到桑给巴尔，并建立了种植园，这里最终占据了世界丁香产量的大部份额。直到1964年，桑给巴尔一直主导着世界丁香市场。
During the Napoleonic Wars, the English temporarily seized the Banda Islands. Before the Dutch could regain control, the English uprooted hundreds of nutmeg seedlings and moved them to their own colonies in Ceylon, Singapore, and India, breaking the Dutch monopoly on nutmeg and mace. This ended a Dutch stranglehold on the Indonesian spice industry that had held up for well over 100 years.
在拿破仑战争期间，英国人暂时占领了班达群岛。在荷兰人重新获得控制权之前，英国人将数百株肉豆蔻树苗连根拔起，转移到他们自己在锡兰、新加坡和印度的殖民地，打破了荷兰对肉豆蔻和麦芽的垄断。这就结束了荷兰对印度尼西亚香料业的垄断，而这种垄断已经维持了100多年。
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Rijksstudio Accessed 4 Nov 2021.
原文作者：James Hancock
James F. Hancock是一名自由撰稿人，密歇根州立大学的名誉教授。他的研究领域是作物进化和贸易史。他的书包括《香料、香味和丝绸》（CABI），以及《种植园作物》（Routledge）
原文网址：https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1872/european-discovery--conquest-of-the-spice-islands/
