(待校正)英专学硕-外语语言学-考研笔记-1-1-4-2
Chapter ONE——Language and Linguistics
目录
1-1——「语言与语言学」之Language
1-1-1术语背诵on language
1-1-2 The Definition of Language-广度
1-1-3 The Design Feature of Language-广度
1-1-4-1论述题on language-常规默写题
1-1-4-2论述题on language-材料综合题
1-2-1 Functions of language
材料综合题
例题赏析1——If language is partially defined as communication, can we call the noises that dogs make language? Why or why not?
谁回答“YES”就自己开创个学派吧。
标准答题思路——
(a).语言的定义！语言是人类特有的！狗没有语言。
(b).关联语言的几大区别性特征。如，狗的叫声是先天有的，而非习得的，没有文化传递性。狗的叫声没有位移性，我们可以跨时空交际而狗不可以。我们的语言有二重性，可拆分，而狗的叫声不可以。狗的叫声没有创造性/能产性，而我们的语言可以创造出没听过、没见过的句子，或者新语境、新含义，以及无限长的句子的可能。
(c).书上关联过的、与Dogs有关的、我提到过的、你能记住的例子，默写下来！如，No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in few days.
[辨证概念/头脑风暴]——
(a).Creativity、Productivity根据所考院校二选一就行，不要都答，冲突了。二选一后，就扯一扯，[胡][戴]混搭没问题。
(b).语言学有bug，大家还是不知道为好，嘻嘻，别死磕。比如「任意性」，狗的叫声有没有「任意性」？如果说不清、道不明，就睁一只眼闭一只眼，就没必要写「任意性」。按需作答就行，要答就答能作证观点的，别弄得悖论出来太尴尬了。虽说确实能整出不少奇妙的化学反应，但别给自己整不愉快，一会儿我还要提到这个点。
[拓展的补丁]，其实可以通过「任意性」的特性来推断，狗叫没有任意性！！！
The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and that makes it possible for language to have an unlimitid(不受限的) source of expressions.[戴]
Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.[胡]
例题赏析2——课后题-20[胡-第三版]，根据语言的任意性和规约性看谈谈对下列谚语的认识，
All roads lead to Rome.
You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.
When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
Rome was not built in a day.
[头脑风暴]——有没有憨憨纠结到底哪个是「Conventionality」，哪个是「Arbitrariness」？【认真你就输了】！在每个句子中，两个性质肯定都有所体现呀！~只是或多或少的问题，这个你知道就好，不需要写在答题卡上。「虽说术语二元对立，并不是非黑即白！」
[规范答题]——职业操守、常规操作，我不管例句写的啥，而且一些句子我看不懂。但，我们先默写术语「Conventionality」、「Arbitrariness」。
然后，稍微思考下，大家会发现，其实「任意性-单词层面」、「规范性-句子层面」，你知道就好，不需要写在答题卡上。你就术语默写完后，随便扯一扯，
(a).Rome指的是罗马，无论换成其他任何名字，这个东西就是罗马这个地方。Silk，也同理。这是任意性的体现。
(b).你不能说Rome All roads to lead，这是规约性的体现。
这一通操作写下来，直接等着复试就行啦。
大家觉得难吗？这不是难不难的问题，而是熟练不熟练的问题。
源文本给的例句，任意性——“pen”by any other name is the thing we use to write with.
A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”——Shakespeare. 规约性——“bkli”、“I apple eat”, are incorrect.
套个皮就行啦！！！照着换个壳就行啦！！！
母题七——
(10-北外)How do you compare the traffic light system with a human linguistic system?
(a).属于人类语言系统，但交通信号灯没有二重性！
(b).您才华展示区——交通信号灯&人类语言系统，即是人类特有的，它可以传递信息，它是约定俗成的，它有任意性。
(c).二重性的术语默写下来，然后，信号灯没有二重性。(不要问为什么没有，因为没有，所以没有)
关于母题七的(c)，[胡-第三版]课后第6题，就明确提到了「信号灯&二重性」，默认已知就行！
[答题技巧]——就按需作答，别弄个悖论出来就太尴尬了- -！要答就答记过的、需要背诵的、能作证观点的话术。
比如，Does the traffic light system belong to language?
我在1-1-2说过，这个问法就很奇葩，它属于「Human Linguistic System」。而它是不是「语言」，这个问题就无解。
憨憨把「语言的定义」掏出来，Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication，然后去死磕它不是Vocal，也不能Communicate，自己反驳自己，太搞笑了吧。
对自己不利的话不要答——比如你把「语言的定义」答上去，啥意思呢？我说了它属于「human linguistic system」，你为什么非得考虑它是不是「language」呢？
「语言的定义」，你写就写吧，你应该给术语降降温，别让它跑偏了，你就说，因为它是人类特有的，是系统的，符号的，所以属于语言系统！
[头脑风暴]——跟语言学大师[胡]学学，人家可以说句子层面的「任意性」小，人家也可以说没有「任意性」！
咱也《灵活》用术语，比如问，一个疯子闭门造车，创造了一种新的语言，属于语言吗？不属于！！！任意、口头、符号、人类特有、系统，它都没有，它也不能用于交流，不是成员共同享有的！！！憨憨：“它是人类特有的呀，创造的文字有符号表达的呀”。
【灵活】【适应性理解】，憨憨懂吗？相反，比如交通信号灯，任意、口头、符号、人类特有、系统，它符合一两点你就可以说有。
狗头保命，这东西出去可不能乱说哈，这可是文科学术的遮羞布。
[头脑风暴+辨证概念]——接着上一条说，有人纠结Traffic Light&Vocal， Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages and writing system came much kater than spoken form[戴]. Writing is derivative of speech[胡]. 就是说，语言诞生于说话，十万年前的事情了，不予考虑。
而且还有一个思路就是，关于「语言的定义」，Symbolic和Vocal本身就是对立的，大家没发现嘛？！写的符号肯定不是口头说的。所以，关于什么语言，没有定量的定义。但，可以定性判断什么属于人类语言系统。
[头脑风暴]——我好歹参与sci论文相关的工作，但关于语言学的逻辑性，豆瓣拒绝评分，我也表示不予评价。不同于理科，文科不能钻牛角尖，文科考虑问题先考虑是否有意义？是否有必要？是否有价值？
你比如，讲「Duality」，肯定有人会死磕，Phone(音素)的下层是什么? 句子的上层是段落，段落的上层是文章，文章的上层是合集，合集的上层是什么？干嘛呐，吃饱撑着~平常用语言就是句子，句子应该是最有意义的，往上往下走都相对来说就意义不大，就日常来说。
把格局打开！能理解理解，理解不了就别为难自己。
多写写博导论文练练就懂了，如果不会变通，以后怎么给研导学术打工？！狗头保命！！！
语言学考试得分不难，别为难自己。好吧，死磕之前想清楚，价值、意义、必要性，考试考吗？不知道就问我。不考就别死磕。
回到这道题，(10-北外)How do you compare the traffic light system with a human linguistic system?
(c).没有，默写术语。然后，比如红绿灯作为独立的下层，它没法组合成有意义的上层。
时间充足就可以把下层也答上去，下层也给否定了。其实下层应该是有意义的，但是就给他否定掉就行，像极了情侣吵架，不可开交一样哈哈。比如组合 图片 图片。
这个点不需要理解的，你可以说因为它没有二重性，所以它不是。你也可以说因为它不是，所以它没有二重性。女孩子嘛，对男生的小脾气多用用！！！哈哈哈哈哈哈~
你可以说，就没有何谈独立性，所以没有二重性。你也可以说，它的独立性不能构成有意义的上下级关系，所以就没有二重性！
去这样答题，这题就基本上满分了，标答写的就这思路，知足了。
仍然是母题七How do you compare the traffic light system with a human linguistic system?
这个题还有个思路， 它说让「交通信号系统」和「人类语言系统」作比较，咱就不说「二重性」，而说其它，比如「任意性」，应该都有的，「文化传递性」也必须都有的。就这两点，及格分就能拿到啦。
校级命题命题事故，见怪不怪。不是我说的哈，狗头保命。或者这样理解，这题就是无解答案，灵活给分，写得越多，分数越高哦~
论述题阅卷，答案肯定五花八门，不少人连术语都不写就直接天马行空、天花乱坠。但咱按照书上的答，不卑不亢、不骄不躁，无论你是回答【交通信号灯没有二重性及其解释】，还是去回答【两者都有任意性和文化传递性及其解释】，或者【按照语言的定义去说它是人类特有的、符号的、任意的、文化传递的】，都是能得到相对丰厚的回报！
例题赏析3——It is widely known that animals have their own ways of communicating with each other. For example, bees can dance very complicated dances and some birds can sing very complicated songs. It is also generally agreed that there are fundamental differences between human language and other animals ways of communicating. (i).What is your view on this point? (ii).If you also think that there are fundamental differences between human language and other animals’ ways of communicating, according to you, what are the differences? Please give short explanations. If you don’t think that there are fundamental differences between human language and other animals’ ways of communicating, please also defend your position. Illustrate your points with examples with examples if necessary.
Everybody who DON’T think that there are fundamental differences?
这你让研导怎么看？挑战学术圈的饭碗你得有背景呀，记得带上三五百页的证明材料，有望往顶级学术期刊发表，加油哦~你感觉我这段话是在捧杀，那是没水平，人家大神才不管捧不捧杀，坚持自己的真理就是敢发。开个玩笑
标准作答的核心——
(a).引出The Design Features of Language
(b).介绍The Design Features of Language.
(c).默写完后，课本上有关于动物的例子，就上述提到的例子。
标答大纲：
(1).著名哲学家Bertrand Russel曾说过，“No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.”
以及，In order to mate, propagate and cooperate in their colonies, species like birds and bees also communicate by singing or dancing, following a very elaborate routine too.
但，统统不是Language！！！Animals have their own ways to communicate with each other, or to convey information
(2). Arbitrariness, was discussed by Saussure, refers to that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds[戴], and the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship[胡]. For example, we cannot explain why a book is called a /bʊk/ and a pen a /pen/ [胡]. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.[戴]
补丁——The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimitid(不受限的) source of expressions.[戴] Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.[胡]
这个补丁超赞！！！如果只默写术语，我们不知道动物交流是否有任意性，如果加了后，Arbitrariness&sophistication, unlimited source of expressions, creation，直接就默认狗狗猫猫肯定不会啦！！！
(3). Duality——It refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.
Displacement, means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present(in time and space) at moment of communication.
动物交流没有位移性，a dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in few days.
(4). By creativity, we mean language is resourceful because of itself recursiveness. 没有二重性，就也没有创造性！
(5).Cultural transmission——We were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.
An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible.
与此同时，animal call system are genetically transmitted, i.e, animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar(特有的) to their species.
Examine the following two statement about language, and discuss the similarities and differences between them. Do you agree with the two statement? Explain your answer.
(甲).Sapir(1921: Language): “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”
(乙).Bloch and Trager(1942: Outline of Linguistic Analysis): “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.”
比较相似点，结合着书上的定义去比较呀，或者就不管这俩人说的啥，你就说Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication，你再看(1).(2).谁符合就迎合迎合扯上几句就行啦。
这其实很像高中语文材料整合题，真的很像，咱们可以驾驭的！！！
(甲).Non-instinctive method&Cultural transmission. Purely human&Human-specific. Voluntraily&Arbitrariness. Symbols&Symbolic.
(乙).A social group co-operates&动物有语言&非Human-specific. System&Systematic. vocal&vocal. arbitrary&arbitrary. symbol&symbol
除了通过定义来说，还有一些差异的，甲认为语言只是交流思想、情绪。而乙强调语言用于合作。
总之，对于正统The Definition of Language来说，甲乙各自都有局限性，但又相辅相成，值得相互借鉴。
练习题1——A wolf is able to express subtle gradations of emotion by different positions of the ears, the lips, and the tail. There are eleven postures of the tail that express such emotions as self-confidence, confident threat, lack of tension, uncertain threat, depression, defensiveness, active submission, and complete submission. This system seems to be complex. Suppose there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express in this way. Would you then say a wolf had a language similar to man’s? If not, why not?
参考上述的内容，尤其是例题赏析3，以及记过的笔记，自己练！！！
