【简译】平安时代（Heian Period）

上一时代：

The Heian Period of Japanese history covers 794 to 1185 CE and saw a great flourishing in Japanese culture from literature to paintings. Government and its administration came to be dominated by the Fujiwara clan who eventually were challenged by the Minamoto and Taira clans. The period, named after the capital Heiankyo, closes with the Genpei War in which the Minamoto were victorious and their leader Yoritomo established the Kamakura Shogunate.

          历史上的平安时代涵盖公元794年至1185年，见证了日本文化从文学到绘画的繁荣。政府和行政管理逐渐由藤原氏掌控，后来受到了源氏和平氏家族的挑战。这一时期以首都平安京命名，以源平合战的结束而告终，源氏取得了胜利，其领导人源赖朝建立了镰仓幕府。

从奈良到平安京

During the Nara Period (710-794 CE) the Japanese imperial court was beset by internal conflicts motivated by the aristocracy battling each other for favours and positions and an excessive influence on policy from Buddhist sects whose temples were dotted around the capital. Eventually, the situation resulted in Emperor Kammu (r. 781-806 CE) moving the capital from Nara to (briefly) Nagaokakyo and then to Heiankyo in 794 CE to start afresh and release the government from corruption and Buddhist influence. This marked the beginning of the Heian Period which would last into the 12th century CE.

          在奈良时代（公元710-794年），日本朝廷饱受内部冲突的困扰，贵族们为争夺利益和地位而相互争斗，佛教教派对政府政策过度影响，这些教派的寺庙遍布首都周围。最终，这种情况导致桓武天皇（公元781-806年）将首都从奈良迁至（短暂的）长冈京，然后在公元794年迁至平安京，以重新开始并使政府摆脱腐败和佛教的影响。这标志着平安时代的开始，它将持续到公元12世纪。

The new capital, Heiankyo, meaning 'the capital of peace and tranquillity,' was laid out on a regular grid plan. The city had a wide central avenue which dissected the eastern and western quarters. Architecture followed Chinese models with most buildings for public administration having crimson columns supporting green tiled roofs. Private homes were much more modest and had thatch or bark roofs. The aristocracy had palaces with their own carefully landscaped gardens and a large pleasure park was built south of the royal palace (Daidairi). No Buddhist temples were permitted in the central part of the city and artisan quarters developed with workshops for artists, metal workers and potters.

          新的首都平安京，寓意着“和平与安宁的首都”，按照规则的网格计划进行布局。这座城市有一条宽阔的中央大道，将东部和西部地区分割开来。建筑遵循中国模式，大多数公共行政建筑都有深红色的柱子，支撑着绿色的瓦片屋顶。私人住宅则更为简朴，采用茅草或树皮屋顶。贵族们的宫殿都有自己精心设计的花园，在王宫（Daidairi）的南部建有一个大型的娱乐公园。城市的中心部分不允许建造佛教寺庙，工匠区发展起来，有艺术家、金属工匠和陶工的工作室。

No Heian Period buildings survive today from the capital except the Shishin-den (Audience Hall) which was burnt down but faithfully reconstructed and the Daigoku-den (Hall of State) which suffered a similar fate and was rebuilt on a smaller scale at the Heian Shrine. From the 11th century CE the city's longtime informal name meaning simply 'the capital city' was officially adopted: Kyoto. It would remain the capital of Japan for a thousand years.

          除了被烧毁但被重建的“紫宸殿”和遭遇同样命运并在平安神宫以较小规模重建的 “大极殿”之外，没有其他平安时期的建筑存留至今。从公元 11 世纪起，这座城市长期以来的非正式名称（意为“首都”）正式被采用：京都。它在一千年内一直是日本的首都。

平安时期的政府

Kyoto was the centre of a government which consisted of the emperor, his high ministers, a council of state and eight ministries which, with the help of an extensive bureaucracy, ruled over some 7,000,000 people spread over 68 provinces, each ruled by a regional governor and further divided into eight or nine districts. In wider Japan, the lot of the peasantry was not quite so rosy as the aesthetics-preoccupied nobility at court. The vast majority of Japan's population worked the land, either for themselves or the estates of others, and they were burdened by banditry and excessive taxation. Rebellions such as occurred in Kanto under the leadership of Taira no Masakado between 935 and 940 CE were not uncommon.

          京都是政府中心，它由天皇、高级大臣、内朝（存疑待更正？）和八个部委组成，在官僚机构的帮助下，统治着分布在68个省的大约7,000,000人，每个省由一名地区长官统治，并进一步划分为8或9个区。农民的命运并不像宫廷里专注于美学的贵族那么美好。日本的绝大多数人口都在耕种土地，要么是为自己的生计，要么是为他人的产业，他们被盗贼和过度的税收所困扰。像公元935年至940年期间在平将门领导下发生在关东的叛乱并不少见。

The policy of distributing public lands which had been instigated in previous centuries came to an end by the 10th century CE, and the result was that the proportion of land held in private hands gradually increased. By the 12th century CE 50% of land was held in private estates (shoen) and many of these, given special dispensation through favours or due to religious reasons, were exempt from paying tax. This situation would cause a serious dent in the state's finances. Wealthy landowners were able to reclaim new land and develop it, thus increasing their wealth and opening an ever-wider gap between the haves and have-nots. There were also practical political repercussions as the large estate owners became more remote from the land they owned, many of them actually residing at court in Heiankyo. This meant that estates were managed by subordinates who sought to increase their own power, and conversely, the nobility and the emperor became more separated from everyday life. Most commoners' contact with the central authority was limited to paying the local tax collector and brushes with the metropolitan police force which not only maintained public order but also tried and sentenced criminals.

          公元10世纪时，前几个世纪推行的公共土地分配政策已经结束，结果是私人手中的土地比例逐渐增加。到了公元12世纪，50%的土地由私人庄园（shoen）持有，其中许多人由于受到恩惠或宗教原因而获得特别豁免，可以免于纳税。这种情况会对国家财政造成严重影响。富裕的地主能够开垦新的土地并加以开发，从而增加他们的财富，贫富差距逐渐扩大。随着大庄园主越来越远离他们拥有的土地，也产生了实际的政治影响，他们中的许多人实际上住在平安京的宫廷里。这意味着庄园由寻求增加自己权力的下属管理，相反，贵族和皇帝与日常生活更加分离。大多数平民与中央当局的接触仅限于向当地的收税员纳税，以及与首都警察部队打交道，后者不仅维持公共秩序，而且还负责审问和判决罪犯。

Even at court the emperor, although still important and still considered divine, became sidelined by powerful bureaucrats who all came from one family: the Fujiwara clan. Figures such as Michinaga (966-1028 CE) not only dominated policy and government bodies such as the household treasury office (kurando-dokoro) but also managed to marry off their daughters to emperors. Further weakening the royal position was the fact that many emperors took the throne as children and so were governed by a regent (Sessho), usually a representative of the Fujiwara family. When the emperor reached adulthood, he was still advised by a new position, the Kampaku, which ensured the Fujiwara still pulled the political strings of court. To guarantee this situation was perpetuated, new emperors were nominated not by birth but by their sponsors and encouraged or forced to abdicate when in their thirties in favour of a younger successor. For example, Fujiwara Yoshifusa put his seven-year-old grandson on the throne in 858 CE and then became his regent. Many Fujiwara statesmen would act as regent for three or four emperors during their career.

          即使在宫廷里，天皇虽然仍然重要且仍被认为是神圣的，但却被强大的官僚们排挤在外，这些官僚都来自一个家族：藤原氏。像藤原道长（公元966-1028年）这样的人物不仅主导政策和政府机构，如大臣办公室（kurando-dokoro），而且还设法将女儿嫁给了皇帝。进一步削弱皇室地位的事实是，许多天皇在孩提时代即位，因此由摄政王（Sessho）辅助管理，通常是藤原家族的代表。当天皇成年后，他仍然被一个新的角色，即关白(kampaku)辅佐，这确保了藤原家族仍然在宫廷中操纵政权。为了保证这种情况得以延续，新的天皇不是由出生而被提名，而是由他们的赞助人提名，并鼓励或强迫他们在30多岁时退位，以让位给更年轻的继承人。例如，藤原良房在公元858年将他7岁的孙子推上了皇位，然后成为他的摄政王。许多藤原政治家在他们的职业生涯中会为三或四个皇帝担任摄政。

The dominance of the Fujiwara was not total and did not go unchallenged. Emperor Shirakawa (r. 1073-1087 CE) attempted to assert his independence from the Fujiwara by abdicating in 1087 CE and allowing his son Horikawa to reign under his supervision. This strategy of 'retired' emperors, still in effect governing, became known as 'cloistered government' (insei) as the emperor usually remained behind closed doors in a monastery. It added another wheel to the already complex machine of government.

          藤原家族的统治地位并非完全没有受到挑战。白河天皇（公元1073-1087年）试图通过在公元1087年退位，让他的儿子堀川在他的监督下执政，让他不受藤原家族的控制。这种“退休”天皇的策略，实际上仍然有效，被称为 “隐居政府”（insei），因为天皇通常在寺院中闭门不出。这给已经很复杂的政府机器又增加了一道难题。

Back in the provinces, new power-brokers were emerging. Left to their own devices and fuelled by blood from the minor nobility produced by the process of dynastic shedding (when an emperor or aristocrat had too many children they were removed from the line of inheritance), two important groups evolved, the Minamoto (aka Genji) and Taira (aka Heike) clans. With their own private armies of samurai, they became important instruments in the hands of rival members of the Fujiwara clan's internal power struggle which broke out in the 1156 CE Hogen Disturbance and the 1160 CE Heiji Disturbance.

          在外省，新的权力掮客正在出现。由他们自己决定，并由王朝割据过程中产生的小贵族的血液（当一个皇帝或贵族有太多的孩子时，他们就会被从继承线中删除）所推动，两个重要的团体逐渐形成，即源氏（又称源氏）和平氏（又称平氏）。他们拥有自己的私人武士军队，成为藤原氏内部权力斗争中的重要工具，这些斗争在公元1156年的保元之乱和公元1160年的平治之乱中爆发了。

The Taira, led by Taira no Kiyomori, eventually swept away all rivals and dominated government for two decades. However, in the Genpei War (1180-1185), the Minamoto returned victorious, and at the war's finale, the Battle of Dannoura, the Taira leader, Tomamori, and the young emperor Antoku committed suicide. The Minamoto clan leader Yoritomo was shortly after given the title of shogun by the emperor and his rule would usher in the Kamakura Period (1185-1333 CE), also known as the Kamakura Shogunate, when Japanese government became dominated by the military.

          平氏家族在平清盛的领导下，最终横扫了所有对手，并统治政府长达二十年。然而，在源平合战（1180-1185年）中，源氏取得了胜利，在战争的最后一战——坛之浦之战中，平氏领袖平知盛和年轻的安德天皇自杀身亡。不久之后，源氏族长源赖朝被天皇授予将军头衔，他的统治将迎来镰仓时代（公元1185-1333年），也被称为镰仓幕府，此时日本政府开始由军队主导。

平安时期的宗教

In terms of religion, Buddhism continued its dominance, helped by such noted scholar monks as Kukai (774-835 CE) and Saicho (767-822 CE), who founded the Shingon and Tendai Buddhist sects respectively. They brought from their visits to China new ideas, practices, and texts, notably the Lotus Sutra (Hokke-kyo) which contained the new message that there were many different but equally valid ways to enlightenment. There was also Amida (Amitabha), the Buddha of Pure Land Buddhism, who could help his followers on this difficult path.

          在宗教方面，佛教继续保持其主导地位，在空海（公元774-835年）和最澄（公元767-822年）等著名僧侣的帮助下，分别创立了真言宗和天台宗。他们在访问中国时带来了新的思想、实践和文本，特别是《法华经》（Hoke-kyo），其中包含了许多新的宗教思想，即有许多不同但同样有效的方法来实现开悟。还有阿弥陀佛（Amitabha），净土宗的佛陀，能够在这条艰难的道路上帮助他的弟子。

Buddhism's spread was assisted by government patronage, although, the emperor was wary of undue power amongst the Buddhist clergy and so took to appointing abbots and confining monks to their monasteries. Buddhist sects had become powerful political entities and although monks were forbidden from carrying weapons and killing, they could pay novice monks and mercenaries to do their fighting for them to win power and influence in the mishmash of nobles, landed-estate managers, private and imperial armies, emperor and ex-emperors, pirates, and warring clans that plagued the Heian political landscape.

          佛教的传播得到了政府的支持，尽管皇帝对佛教神职人员中的不正当权力有所警惕，因此采取了任命住持和将僧侣限制在寺院里的做法。佛教教派已成为强大的政治实体，尽管僧侣被禁止携带武器和杀人，但他们可以付钱给沙弥或雇佣兵，让他们为自己打仗，以便在贵族、地主、私人和帝国军队、皇帝和前皇帝、海盗以及困扰平安政治格局的交战部族中赢得权力和影响力。

Confucian and Taoist principles also continued to be influential in the centralised administration, and the old Shinto and animist beliefs continued, as before, to hold sway over the general populace while Shinto temples such as the Ise Grande Shrine remained important places of pilgrimage. All of these faiths were practised side by side, very often by the same individuals, from the emperor to the humblest farmer.

          儒家和道家的原则在中央集权的行政管理中也继续发挥着影响，而古老的神道和万物有灵论的信仰和以前一样，继续对普通民众产生影响，而伊势神宫等神道庙宇仍然是重要的朝圣地。这些信仰都是并存的，而且往往是由同一批人，从皇帝到最卑微的农民都在信奉。

与中国的关系

Following a final embassy to the Tang court in 838 CE, there were no longer formal diplomatic relations with China as Japan became somewhat isolationist without any necessity to defend its borders or embark on territorial conquest. However, sporadic trade and cultural exchanges continued with China, as before. Goods imported from China included medicines, worked silk fabrics, ceramics, weapons, armour, and musical instruments, while Japan sent in return pearls, gold dust, amber, raw silk, and gilt lacquerware.

          在公元838年最后一次出使唐朝后，日本与中国便不再有正式的外交关系，因为日本变得有些孤立，没有必要保卫其边界或开始征服领土。然而，与中国的零星贸易和文化交流仍在继续。从中国进口的商品包括药品、加工过的丝织品、陶瓷、武器、盔甲和乐器，而日本则送来珍珠、金粉、琥珀、生丝和鎏金漆器作为回报。

Monks, scholars, musicians, and artists were sent to see what they could learn from the more advanced culture of China and bring back new ideas on anything from painting to medicine. Students also went, many spending several years studying Chinese administrative practices and bringing back their knowledge to the court. Books came too, a catalogue dating to 891 CE lists more than 1,700 Chinese titles made available in Japan which cover history, poetry, court protocols, medicine, laws, and Confucian classics. Still, despite these exchanges, the lack of regular missions between the two states from the 10th century CE meant that the Heian Period overall saw a diminishing in the influence of Chinese culture, which meant that Japanese culture began to find its own unique path of development.

          僧侣、学者、音乐家和艺术家被派往中国，看看他们能从中国更先进的文化中学到什么，并带回从绘画到医学等各领域的新思想。学生们也去了，许多人花了几年时间学习中国的行政管理方法，并将他们的知识带回宫廷。他们也带回大量的书籍，一份可追溯到公元891年的目录列出了1700多种中国书籍，这些书籍涵盖了历史、诗歌、宫廷礼仪、医学、法律和儒家经典。尽管有这些交流，但从公元10世纪开始，两国之间缺乏定期的访问，这意味着平安时代总体上看到中国文化的影响在减少，这意味着日本文化正逐渐寻找自己独特的发展道路。

平安时期的文化

The Heian period is noted for its cultural achievements, at least at the imperial court. These include the creation of a Japanese writing (kana) using Chinese characters, mostly phonetically, which permitted the production of the world's first novel, the Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu (c. 1020 CE), and several noted diaries (nikki) written by court ladies, including The Pillow Book by Sei Shonagon which she completed c. 1002 CE. Other famous works of the period are the Izumi Shikibu Diary, Fujiwara no Michitsuna's Kagero nikki, and a Tale of Flowering Fortunes by Akazome Emon.

          平安时期以其文化成就而闻名，至少在朝廷是这样的。这些成就包括使用汉字创造的日本文字（假名），这使得世界上第一部长篇小说——紫式部的《源氏物语》（约公元1020年）得以问世，还有几本由宫廷女官撰写的著名的日记（nikki），包括清少纳言的《枕草子》，她大约在公元1002年完成这本书。这一时期的其他著名作品有《和泉式部日记》、藤原道纲的《蜻蛉日记》，以及赤染卫门的《荣花物语》。

This flourishing of women's writing was largely due to the Fujiwara ensuring that their sponsored women at court were surrounded by an interesting and educated entourage in order to attract the affections of the emperor and safeguard their monopoly on state affairs. It also seems that men were not interested in frivolous diaries and commentaries on court life, leaving the field open to women writers who collectively created a new genre of literature which examined the transitory nature of life, encapsulated in the phrase mono no aware (the sadness or pathos of things). Those men who did write history did so anonymously or even pretended to be women such as Ki no Tsurayuki in his travel memoir Tosa nikki.

          女性写作的繁荣很大程度上归功于藤原家族确保他们在宫廷中赞助的女性周围都是有趣且受过教育的随从，以吸引天皇的喜爱并维护她们对国家事务的垄断。此外，男性似乎对轻浮的日记和宫廷生活的评论不感兴趣，这给女性作家留下了广阔的空间，她们共同创造了一种新的文学体裁，审视生活的短暂性，用mono no aware（事物的悲伤或悲哀）这一短语来概括。那些真正写下历史的男人都是匿名的，甚至假装成女人，如纪贯之在他的旅行回忆录《土佐日记》借用女性口吻来完成叙述。

Men did write poetry, though, and the first anthology of royally commissioned Japanese poems, the Kokinshu ('Collection of the Past and Present') appeared in 905 CE. It was a collection of poems by men and women and was compiled by Ki no Tsurayuki, who famously stated, "The seeds of Japanese poetry lie in the human heart grow into leaves of ten thousand words. " (Ebrey, 199).

          不过，男人也写诗，第一部由皇室委托的日本诗歌选集《古今和歌集》（'过去和现在的集合'）出现在公元905年。这是一本男女诗集，由纪贯之编纂，他有句名言：“日本诗歌的种子在人心中，长成万字之叶”。（Ebrey, 199）

Besides literature, the period also saw the production of especially fine clothing at the royal court, using silk and Chinese brocades. Visual arts were represented by screen paintings, intricate hand scrolls of pictures and text (e-maki), and fine calligraphy. An aristocrat's reputation was built not only on his position at court or in the administration but also his appreciation of these things and his ability to compose his own poetry, play music, dance, master board games like go, and perform feats of archery.

          除了文学，这一时期，王室还使用丝绸和中国织锦制作了特别精美的服装。视觉艺术的代表是屏风画、复杂的图画和文字手卷（e-maki），以及精美的书法。一个贵族的声誉不仅建立在他在宫廷或行政部门的地位上，而且还建立在他对这些东西的欣赏以及他自己作诗、演奏音乐、跳舞、掌握围棋等棋盘游戏和表演射箭的能力上。

Painters and sculptors continued to use Buddhism as their inspiration to produce wooden sculptures (painted or left natural), paintings of scholars, gilded bronze bells, rock-cut sculptures of Buddha, ornate bronze mirrors, and lacquered cases for sutras which all helped spread the new sects' imagery around Japan. Such was the demand for art that for the first time a class of professional artists arose, the work previously having been created by scholar monks. Painting also became a fashionable pastime for the aristocracy.

          画家和雕塑家继续以佛教为灵感，制作木雕（涂色或自然）、文人画、镀金铜钟、石刻佛像、华丽的铜镜和漆制的藏经盒，这些都有助于在日本各地传播新教派形象。对艺术的需求如此之大，以至于第一次出现了一个专业的艺术家阶层，以前的作品都是由学者和尚创作的。绘画也成为贵族们的一种时尚消遣方式。

Gradually, a more wholly-Japanese approach expanded the range of subject matter in art. A Japanese style, Yamato-e, developed in painting particularly, which distinguished it from Chinese works. It is characterised by more angular lines, the use of brighter colours, and greater decorative details. Lifelike portraits of court personalities such as those by Fujiwara Takanobu, illustrations inspired by Japanese literature, and landscapes became popular, paving the way for the great works to come in the medieval period.

          渐渐地，一种更完全日本化的方法扩大了艺术题材的范围。即大和绘，特别是在绘画方面的发展，使其区别于中国风格。它的特点是线条更有棱角，使用更明亮的颜色，以及更多的装饰细节。栩栩如生的宫廷人物肖像，如藤原隆信的肖像画、受日本文学启发的插图以及风景画开始流行，为中世纪时期艺术品的发展铺平了道路。

参考书目：

Beasley, W.G. The Japanese Experience A Short History of Japan. University of California, 1999.

Ebrey, P.B. Pre-Modern East Asia. Cengage Learning, 2013.

Henshall, K. Historical Dictionary of Japan to 1945. Scarecrow Press, 2013.

Mason, R.H.P. A History of Japan. Tuttle Publishing, 1997.

Tsuda, N. A History of Japanese Art. Tuttle Publishing, 2009.

Whitney Hall, J. The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press, 1999.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

          驻意大利的历史作家。他的主要兴趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神话和发现所有文明的共同思想。他拥有政治哲学硕士学位，是《世界历史百科全书》的出版总监。

原文网址：https://www.worldhistory.org/Heian_Period/