【简译】烟草与美洲殖民地时期的经济

The most important cash crop in Colonial America was tobacco, first cultivated by the English at their Jamestown Colony of Virginia in 1610 CE by the merchant John Rolfe (l. 1585-1622 CE). Tobacco grew in the wild prior to this time and was cultivated by the indigenous peoples as a stimulant but, after Rolfe, became the most lucrative crop in the Americas.

          美洲殖民地时期最重要的经济作物是烟草，英国商人约翰·罗尔夫（John Rolfe， 1585-1622年）于1610年在弗吉尼亚的詹姆斯敦殖民地首次种植了烟草。在此之前，烟草是野生的，土著人将其进行培育以作为兴奋剂，但在罗尔夫之后，烟草成为美洲最赚钱的作物。

The indigenous people regarded tobacco as a sacred plant which allowed access to the spirit world, a stimulant, and a medicinal substance. After the Spanish colonized the West Indies, South and Central America after 1492 CE, tobacco was grown, harvested, and exported as a recreational drug, and its popularity in Europe and elsewhere made it highly profitable.

          土著人认为烟草是一种神圣的植物，可以通往精神世界，是一种兴奋剂，也是一种药用物质。1492年西班牙人在西印度群岛、南美洲和中美洲相继建立殖民地后，烟草作为一种消遣性药物进行种植、收获和出口，它在欧洲等地的流行使其利润丰厚。  

Once the English had established themselves at Jamestown, this model repeated itself and Virginian tobacco became so popular that, by 1627 CE, 500,000 pounds of tobacco a year were shipped from the colony to Britain. As British colonialism in North America expanded, so did the tobacco plantations and, in time, tobacco served not only as the economic foundation of the colonies but as currency. The process of growing and selling tobacco moved through a series of steps which included the farmer receiving a tobacco note (a kind of check) in return for his product with which he could purchase goods. The tobacco was shipped to English merchants who would send back more goods in payment.

          英国人在詹姆斯敦站稳脚跟后，这种模式又重演了，弗吉尼亚烟草变得很受欢迎，到1627年，每年有50万磅烟草从殖民地运往英国。随着英国殖民主义在北美的扩张，烟草种植园也随之扩大，到后来，烟草不仅成为殖民地的经济基础，还成为货币。种植和销售烟草的过程要经过一系列步骤，包括烟农收到烟草票据（一种支票），作为对其产品的回报，烟农可以用烟草票据购买商品。烟草被运往英国商人手中，英国商人会发送更多的货物作为付款。

This process was observed on a constant basis and the colonies flourished further after the Maryland and Carolina colonies were established and their plantations began to produce more tobacco. As tobacco was a labor-intensive crop, it encouraged the slave trade as well as clearing large tracts of land formerly occupied by indigenous nations. Tobacco, and the economic system of mercantilism, factored into the grievances of the colonists leading to the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783 CE) and continued to exert a powerful hold over the economy once the United States of America was established.

          在马里兰和卡罗莱纳殖民地建立之后，美洲殖民地进一步繁荣，其种植园开始生产更多的烟草。由于烟草是一种劳动密集型作物，它促进了奴隶贸易，并开垦了大片原为土著民族的领地。烟草与重商主义经济体系引发了定居者的不满，是导致美国独立战争（1775-1783年）爆发的因素之一，并在美利坚合众国成立后继续对其经济产生深远影响。

詹姆斯敦与烟草

England established its colony at Jamestown in 1607 CE, and at first, it seemed as doomed as earlier English colonies such as the Roanoke Colony (1587-1590 CE) and the Popham Colony (1607-1608 CE). Many of the initial Jamestown colonists were upper-class Englishmen who had no prior experience in any kind of productive labor and others seem to have been simply lazy or inept. Captain John Smith (l. 1580-1631 CE) took command of the colony and kept it going until he left for England in October 1609 CE following an accident. Between the fall of 1609 CE and May 1610 CE, the colonists suffered, starved, and many died. Jamestown lost at least 80% of its population between 1607-1610 CE. 

          英国于1607年在詹姆斯敦建立了殖民地，起初，它似乎与早期的英国殖民地（如罗阿诺克殖民地（1587-1590年）和波帕姆殖民地（1607-1608年））一样注定要失败。詹姆斯敦最初的殖民者中有许多是英国上层阶级，他们过去没有任何劳动生产经验，其他人似乎只是懒惰或无能。约翰·史密斯船长（1580-1631年）开始指挥殖民地的工作，并一直坚持到1609年10月因意外事故前往英国。从1609年秋天到1610 年 5月，殖民者们受尽折磨，忍饥挨饿，许多人死去。1607-1610年间，詹姆斯敦至少损失了80% 的人口。  

In May of 1610 CE, John Rolfe arrived along with Sir Thomas Gates (l. c. 1585-1622 CE) and, shortly afterwards, Thomas West, Lord De La Warr (l. 1577-1618 CE) arrived on another ship. Gates and De La Warr organized the colony while Rolfe busied himself with planting the crop that would not only save it but become the economic foundation of Colonial America: tobacco. The Spanish had cultivated the naturally growing plant known as Nicotiana tabacum and their blend was a closely guarded secret as they had a monopoly on the American tobacco trade. Rolfe had managed to get hold of some of their hybrid seeds which he thought would do well in the marshy soil of Virginia. He was right, and by 1614 CE, he was a wealthy man and the colony was flourishing.

          1610年5月，约翰·罗尔夫与托马斯·盖茨爵士（Thomas Gates，约1585-1622年）一起抵达殖民地，不久之后，德拉瓦尔勋爵托马斯·韦斯特（Thomas West，Lord De La Warr，约1577-1618年）乘坐另一艘船抵达殖民地。盖茨和韦斯特整顿了殖民地，而罗尔夫则忙于种植不仅能拯救殖民地，还能成为美洲殖民地经济基础的作物：烟草。在此之前，西班牙人培育了一种名为“栽培烟草”（Nicotiana tabacum）的自然生长植物，由于他们垄断了美洲的烟草贸易，因此这种烟草混合物的成分一直受到保密。罗尔夫设法弄到了一些杂交种子，他认为这些种子在弗吉尼亚的沼泽土壤中会生长得很好。结果证明他是对的，到1614年，他成了富翁，殖民地也蒸蒸日上。

烟草与奴隶制

Work on tobacco plantations was at first carried out by indentured servants. These were men and women who had agreed to work for a master for seven years in return for passage to North America and a grant of land once they had completed their service. In 1619 CE, the first Africans arrived in Jamestown via a Dutch ship and, although frequently referred to as slaves, seem at first to have been treated in the same way as indentured servants. Scholar David A Price notes:

     Although it is tempting to assume that these first recorded Africans in English America were also the first slaves, there is evidence to suggest they were not. They may instead have had the legal position of indentured servants, like many of the white newcomers, eligible for freedom after completing a period of service. (197)

          烟草种植园的工作最初由契约仆人承担。同意为主人工作七年的男女，以换取前往北美的通行权以及完成服务后获得土地。1619年，第一批非洲人通过一艘荷兰船抵达詹姆斯敦，虽然他们经常被称为奴隶，但起初似乎受到了与契约仆人相同的待遇。学者大卫·A·普莱斯指出：

          尽管人们很容易认为这些最早出现在英属美洲的非洲人也是最早的奴隶，但有证据表明他们并非如此。相反，他们可能拥有契约仆人的合法地位，就像许多新来的白人一样，在服务一段时间后就有资格获得自由。(197)

Black and white servants worked the tobacco plantations and, on smaller farms, in the company of the landowner and his family. The relationship between the white English landowners, white servants, African servants, and the local indigenous people of the Powhatan Confederacy was never one of equality but grew strained and far more unequal as more land was required by the colonists for settlements and tobacco plantations which encouraged not only the displacement of Native Americans but the development of the slave trade which brought more free labor.

          在地主及其家人的陪伴下，黑人和白人仆人在烟草种植园和较小的农场工作。英国白人地主、白人仆人、非洲契约仆人和波瓦坦部落联盟当地原住民之间的关系从来都不是平等的，而且越来越紧张，越来越不平等，因为殖民者需要更多的土地来建造定居点和烟草种植园，这不仅促使美洲原住民流离失所，而且还促进了奴隶贸易的发展，带来了更多的自由劳动力。

In 1640 CE, a black indentured servant named John Punch left his master’s service, citing harsh treatment, before he had fulfilled his contract, and two white indentured servants left with him. When they were caught and returned to their master, the white servants only had four years added to their time; Punch was sentenced to servitude for life. After 1640 CE, relations between blacks and whites increasingly changed as white servants received better treatment.

          1640年，一个名叫约翰·庞奇 (John Punch)的黑人契约仆人在履行完合同之前，以受到苛刻对待为由离开了他的主人，与他一起离开的还有两个白人契约仆人。当他们被抓回主人身边时，白人仆人只被加了四年的服务期，而庞奇则被判终身奴役。1640年后，随着白人仆人获得更好的待遇，黑人与白人之间的关系日益发生变化。

In this same way, the Powhatan Wars (1610-1646 CE), altered relations between the colonists and indigenous people. The wars cleared the land for colonization and cultivation and also provided the English with slaves for their fields. The Powhatans had never fully welcomed the English but, during John Smith’s time, agreed to a peace which ended in 1610 CE. John Rolfe reestablished good relations with the natives by marrying the famous Pocahontas (l. c. 1596-1617 CE) in 1614 CE, but when she died in 1617 CE, tensions again mounted and a second war broke out in 1622 CE. By the time the third war was over, the power of the Powhatan Confederacy had been broken and many of the natives enslaved.

          同样，波瓦坦战争（1610-1646年）也改变了殖民者与土著人之间的关系。战争为殖民和耕种开辟了土地，也为英国人的田地提供了奴隶。波瓦坦人从未完全欢迎过英国人，但在约翰·史密斯时期，他们接受了早在1610年就结束的和平。约翰·罗尔夫于1614年迎娶了宝嘉康蒂（Pocahontas，约1596-1617年），与当地人重新建立了良好的关系，但当她于1617年去世后，紧张局势再次升级，第二次战争于1622年爆发。第三次战争结束时，波瓦坦部落联盟的势力已被瓦解，许多土著人沦为奴隶。

The colonists found that these people were not as well suited to hours of constant labor as those imported from Africa and so the slave trade grew and slavery was institutionalized in Virginia by 1661 CE and strengthened by a series of laws passed throughout the 1660s CE. Maryland Colony had been established in 1632 CE and the Carolina Colony (later North and South Carolina) in 1663 CE, both large producers of tobacco. By 1700 CE, all three of these states were exporting their product to London and were flourishing. The economy was boosted further by the sale of Native Americans to plantations in the West Indies.

           殖民者发现，这些人不像从非洲引进的人那样适合长时间持续劳动，因此奴隶贸易不断发展，到1661年，奴隶制在弗吉尼亚州制度化，并在整个17世纪60年代通过一系列法律得到加强。马里兰殖民地成立于1632年，卡罗莱纳殖民地（后来的南卡和北卡）成立于1663年，这两个殖民地都是主要烟草生产地。到1700年，这三个州都向伦敦出口烟草产品，且经济繁荣。将美洲原住民卖给西印度种植园，进一步推动了殖民经济的发展。

烟草与经济

As the colonies prospered, they attracted more immigrants from England and elsewhere. Colonial governments had already been established and now oversaw further development of the land and the creation of roads, shipbuilding, businesses, and a booming economy. The Colonial American economy was fueled by 8 steps, which depended on the tobacco crop:

Step 1: Farmers grew tobacco.

Step 2: Farmhands, servants, and slaves harvested the tobacco.

Step 3: The tobacco was dried and packed into hogsheads (large barrels).

Step 4: Colonial government authorities inspected tobacco for quality.

Step 5: Inspectors gave the farmer a writ for a certain amount based on the quality and quantity of their tobacco.

Step 6: The farmer would use this writ (a tobacco note) to purchase goods from local merchants.

Step 7: Colonial merchants would ship the tobacco to England.

Step 8: British merchants would send goods and payment to colonial merchants.

          随着殖民地的繁荣，吸引了更多来自英国和其他地方的移民。殖民地政府建立后，负责监督土地的进一步开发，以及道路、造船、商业和发展经济。美洲殖民地的经济发展主要依靠烟草作物：

第一步：农民种植烟草。

第二步：农夫、仆人和奴隶收割烟草。

第三步：烟草晒干后装入大桶（hogshead，缩写为“hhd”，复数“ hhds”，指一大桶液体或食品、商品；美洲殖民时期使用hogshead来运输和储存烟草）。

第四步：殖民地政府当局检查烟草质量。

第五步：检查人员根据烟草的质量和数量向农民签发一定数额的令状。

第六步：烟农使用该令状（烟草票据）向当地商人购买商品。

第七步：殖民地商人将烟草运往英国。

第八步：英国商人向殖民地商人发送货物和付款。

As time went on (between c. 1620-1720 CE), the number of farmhands and servants harvesting tobacco decreased while the number of slaves increased in response to greater and greater demand for the product. In 1710 CE, the Colony of Carolina was divided into North and South and more tobacco plantations were established which deprived more indigenous people of their lands while, at the same time, Christianizing the natives and encouraging their use of tobacco as a recreational drug, thereby cutting their ties with their traditional understanding and use of the plant. While this was happening, the colonists themselves were becoming more dependent on tobacco both as recreation and as currency. Scholar Iain Gately writes:

     [Tobacco was established as currency]. Tobacco notes were the first exchangeable instruments in the colonies and hence were precursors of the US dollar. Virginia led the way with its Tobacco Inspection Act of 1730…The tobacco inspection system worked as follows: if a planter turned in his weed 'loose' or in bundles, he received a receipt known as a transfer note which entitled the holder to a certain number of pounds of tobacco drawn at random from the total stock of transfer tobacco. Transfer tobacco was derived from several sources. It often happened that, after filling his hogsheads, a planter had an insufficient quantity left over to fill another. This excess was delivered to the warehouse, where the planter would receive a transfer note in exchange. The clergy, and other colonists such as blacksmiths and saddle-makers, whose main occupation was something other than tobacco planting, often tended a small patch in their spare time in order to pay taxes and to make purchases in shops. These people carried their crops to the tobacco warehouse and received transfer notes that could either be sold or tendered as payment of debts, fees, and taxes. The reliance on tobacco to the extent that it could be trusted to do the work of gold, demonstrated its pre-eminence in the southern colonies. (108-109)

          随着时间的推移（约1620-1720年间），收割烟草的农夫和仆人的数量减少，而奴隶的数量却随着对烟草产品的需求的增加而增加。1710年，卡罗莱纳殖民地分为南北两部分，建立了更多的烟草种植园，剥夺了更多原住民的土地，同时使原住民基督教化，鼓励他们将烟草作为一种消遣性药物，从而切断了他们对烟草的传统理解与运用。与此同时，殖民者本身也越来越依赖烟草，无论是作为娱乐还是作为货币。学者伊恩·盖特利写道：

          （烟草被确定为货币）。烟草票据是殖民地最早的可兑换票据，因此也是美元的前身。弗吉尼亚州率先于1730年颁布了《烟草检查法》......烟草检查制度的运作方式如下：如果种植者上交了“散装”或成捆的烟草，他就会收到一张被称为转让烟草的收据，持有者有权从转让烟草的总库存中随机抽取一定数量的烟草。转让烟草有多种来源。种植园主在装满自己的烟草箱后，经常会出现剩余烟草不足以装满另一个烟草箱的情况。多余的烟叶被运到仓库，种植园主会收到一张转运票据作为交换。神职人员和其他殖民者，如铁匠和马具匠，他们的主要职业不是种植烟草，但为了纳税和在商店购物，他们经常在闲暇时间耕种一小块烟草地。这些人将他们的作物运到烟草仓库，然后收到转让票据，这些票据可以出售或作为债务、费用和税款的支付凭证。对烟草的依赖到了可以信赖它来替代黄金工作的程度，这表明烟草在南方殖民地占据了主导地位。(108-109)

The model established by early Virginia continued to replicate itself in that, the greater the demand for tobacco, the more land and labor was required to produce it. Tobacco harvesting also contributed to the separation of slave families because it required skilled labor and so one member of the family who exhibited this skill would be kept while others were sold. The slave trade, whether internationally or locally, also contributed significantly to the colonial economy. The economic system of mercantilism, by which raw materials were shipped to England and finished products returned, depressed the production of cotton and rice – partly because London merchants already had supply lines established elsewhere – encouraging more farmers to devote their land to tobacco which remained in high demand.

          早期弗吉尼亚州建立的模式不断复制，即对烟草的需求越大，生产烟草所需的土地和劳动力就越多。收割烟草也造成了奴隶家庭的分离，因为收割烟草需要熟练的劳动力，因此家庭中表现出这种技能的成员会被保留下来，而其他人则会被卖掉。奴隶贸易，无论是国际贸易还是本地贸易，也对殖民地经济做出了重大贡献。重商主义的经济体系将原材料运往英国，再将成品运回，这抑制了棉花和大米的生产（部分原因是伦敦商人已经在其他地方建立了供应链），鼓励更多的农民将土地用于种植烟草，而烟草的需求量仍然很高。

烟草与革命

The colonial economy continued on in this way until the Currency Act of 1764 CE enacted by the English Parliament which outlawed the use of colonial Bills of Credit and gave Parliament direct control of colonial currency. The Stamp Act of 1765 CE, among its other stipulations, regulated the paper legal documents were printed on and so the tobacco note was no longer recognized as legal tender unless printed on paper officially approved by the British government.

          这种殖民地经济一直持续到英国议会颁布《1764年货币法》，该法禁止使用殖民地信用票据，并赋予议会对殖民地货币的直接控制权。1765年的《印花税法》除其他规定外，还对法律文件的印刷用纸做出了规定，因此烟草纸币不再被承认为法定货币，除非其印刷用纸得到英国政府的正式批准。

Previously (c. 1750 CE), London merchants had begun the policy of depressing tobacco prices in England while continuing to provide sizeable loans to colonial farmers. This meant that farmers were no longer receiving the payment they needed to make a profit and pay their loans. Tobacco was taken in payment by the London merchants when farmers could not pay their debt. These new laws, coupled with others such as the Navigation Act and Quartering Act, increased tensions between the colonies and Great Britain and led to the outbreak of the rebellion which became the American War of Independence.

          在此之前（约1750年），伦敦商人开始实行压低英国烟草价格的政策，同时继续向殖民地农民提供大量贷款。这意味着农民不再能获得盈利和偿还贷款所需的报酬。当农民无法偿还债务时，伦敦商人就会以烟草作为支付手段。这些新法律，再加上《航海法》和《营房法》（要求英国北美殖民地的地方政府向英国士兵提供住房和食物）等其他法律，加剧了殖民地与英国之间的紧张关系，导致了叛乱的爆发，后来演变为美国独立战争。

In 1776 CE, the colonies paid France in tobacco for arms and ammunition at the same time as tobacco exports to London fell off. Britain halted import of tobacco from the colonies in favor of Egyptian and Turkish suppliers. Colonial farmers at this time shifted their efforts to other crops such as rice, corn, and cotton to provide food for colonial militias and material for uniforms.

          1776年，殖民地用烟草向法国购买武器和弹药，与此同时，降低对伦敦的烟草出口量。英国停止从殖民地进口烟草，转而进口埃及和土耳其的烟草。此时，殖民地农民转而种植水稻、玉米和棉花等作物，为殖民地民兵提供食物和军装材料。

This trend became more popular after the Tobacco War of 1780-1781 CE when British forces destroyed thousands of hogsheads of colonial tobacco resulting in enormous financial loss for the farmers. After the war, tobacco production resumed, however, and the newly formed United States found lucrative markets in Europe and elsewhere. Tobacco use in the United States also became more popular at this time, a trend that would continue throughout the next century.

          这种趋势在1780-1781年的烟草战争后变得更加流行，当时英国军队摧毁了成千上万的殖民地烟草，给农民造成了巨大的经济损失。然而，战后烟草生产恢复，新成立的美国在欧洲和其他地方找到了利润丰厚的市场。大约在这个时期，吸烟在美国也变得更流行，这一趋势将持续到下个世纪。

结束语

From the time of its introduction to Europe up through the late 18th century CE, tobacco users smoked the plant in pipes or chewed it. Cigarettes, which started making an appearance largely in the 19th century CE, were considered low class as poorer people, who could not afford a pipe or tobacco, would take what they could get, wrap the plant in paper, and smoke it. Cigarettes gained in popularity after the American Civil War (1861-1865 CE) but were still costly to manufacture as each one was rolled by hand. The inventor James A. Bonsack (l. 1859-1924 CE) changed the industry in 1880 CE when he invented the automated cigarette rolling machine which could produce 400 cigarettes per minute.

          从烟草传入欧洲到18世纪末，吸烟者要么用烟斗吸食，要么直接咀嚼。香烟主要出现于19世纪，由于穷人买不起烟斗或（高等）烟草，他们会把能买到的（劣等）烟草用纸包起来抽，因此香烟被认为是下等烟草。美国内战（1861-1865年）后，香烟开始流行，但由于每支香烟都是手工卷制，因此制造成本仍然很高。发明家詹姆斯·A·邦萨克（James A. Bonsack，1859-1924年）于1880年发明了自动卷烟机，每分钟可生产400支香烟，从而改变了卷烟行业。

In 1881 CE, the president of American Tobacco Company, James Buchanan Duke (l. 1856-1925 CE), acquired all rights to Bonsack’s machine and formed a monopoly on the tobacco market by lowering his prices and driving his competitors out of business. His greed resulted in the Black Patch Tobacco Wars of 1904-1909 CE during which tobacco farmers in Tennessee, who were being paid so little for their crop they could barely survive, formed an association and fought back. Duke’s warehouses, as well as those of farmers who supplied him, were burned and sharecroppers hanged until the wars concluded with the arrest of the ringleaders and the dismantling of Duke’s company.

          1881年，美国烟草公司总裁詹姆斯·布坎南·杜克（James Buchanan Duke，1856-1925年）获得了邦萨克机器的所有权利，并通过降低价格和迫使竞争对手倒闭形成了对烟草市场的垄断。他的贪婪导致了1904-1909年的“黑斑烟草战争”，田纳西州的烟农们因为烟草收入太低而几乎无法生存，他们成立了一个联盟并进行反击。杜克的仓库以及向他供货的农民的仓库被烧毁，佃农被绞死，直到战争结束，联盟头目被捕，而杜克的公司则被解散。  

By this time, tobacco was no longer central to the economy of the United States but, as the Black Patch Tobacco Wars proved, was still a significant crop of great value. The cigarette rolling machine became standard in tobacco manufacture as cigarettes became more popular and widely used than pipes and, especially, after World War I (1914-1918 CE) when cigarettes were included in the military rations of United States soldiers.

          此时，烟草已不再是美国经济的核心，但正如“黑斑烟草战争”所证明的那样，烟草仍然是一种具有重要价值的作物。卷烟机成为烟草生产的标准设备，因为卷烟比烟斗更受欢迎，使用范围更广，尤其是在第一次世界大战（1914-1918年）之后，卷烟被列入美国士兵的军粮。

After World War I, tobacco in the form of cigarettes became even more popular as tobacco companies marketed their product to women as an appetite-suppressant and magazines of the time presented the habit as glamourous and high-class. American tobacco companies continued to market the product successfully to every demographic, at home and abroad, until the late 20th century CE when the negative effects of smoking were better publicized and advertising curtailed by the US government. The economy of the United States continues to benefit from tobacco sales, however, as the government subsidizes tobacco farmers while individual states tax the product heavily, ostensibly to curb the habit which remains almost as popular, and just as lucrative, as it was in the colonial era.

          第一次世界大战后，由于烟草公司将其产品作为一种抑制食欲的药物向女性推销，而当时的杂志也将吸烟的习惯描述为迷人和高档，因此香烟形式的烟草变得更加流行。美国烟草公司继续成功地向国内外所有人口群体推销该产品，直到 20 世纪末，吸烟的负面影响得到了更好的宣传，香烟广告受到美国政府的限制。然而，美国经济继续受益于烟草销售，因为政府补贴烟农，个别州对产品征收重税，表面上看是为了遏制烟瘾，但烟瘾仍像殖民时代一样流行且有利可图。

参考书目：

de Las Casas, B. & Griffin, N. & Pagden, A. A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies. Penguin Classics, 1999.

Gately, I. Tobacco: A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced Civilization. Grove Press, 2003.

Goodman, J. Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence. Routledge, 1994.

Horn, J. A Land As God Made It: Jamestown and the Birth of America. Basic Books, 2006.

Mann, C. C. 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. Vintage Books, 2012.

Musselwhite, P., Mancall, P. C. , Horn, J. Virginia 1619: Slavery and Freedom in the Making of America. University of North Carolina Press, 2019.

Price, D. A. Love and Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahontas, and the Start of a New Nation. Vintage, 2005.

Silverman, D. J. This Land Is Their Land. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2020.

原文作者：Joshua J. Mark

Joshua J. Mark是自由撰稿人，曾是纽约马里斯特学院的兼职哲学教授，他曾在希腊和德国生活过，并游历过埃及。曾在大学里教授历史、写作、文学和哲学。

原文网址: https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1681/tobacco--colonial-american-economy/