中世纪世界生活手册（十四）

上一章

13世纪和14世纪的转折点

          13世纪是伊比利亚基督教化地区历史上的一个转折点。在” 圣人” 费尔南多三世（1217-52年）和” 征服者”詹姆斯（Jaime）一世（1213-76年）的领导下，卡斯蒂利亚和阿拉贡王国分别以牺牲安达卢西亚为代价大幅扩张其领土，占领了科尔多瓦、塞维利亚、哈恩、瓦伦西亚、莫夕亚、巴利阿里群岛等，使伊比利亚的穆斯林领土缩小到格拉纳达这个小王国。这些基督教王国的巨大权力和财富减少了他们对犹太臣民的依赖，而此时教皇在第四次拉特朗公会议颁布诏书后对犹太教与基督教的关系采取了强硬态度。保留少数有特权的犹太人作为首席拉比、首席税吏或皇家医生，并不能阻止他们，这反而为14世纪的反犹太暴乱和屠杀提供了借口，这些暴乱和屠杀在1391年的恐怖事件中达到了顶峰。特拉斯塔马拉王朝，即卡斯蒂利亚国王彼得（佩德罗）一世（1350-69）和特拉斯塔马拉的亨利（恩里克）（1366-79）之间爆发内战的催化剂之一，是犹太官员在彼得的宫廷中的地位异常突出。亨利对彼得的亲犹太政策的憎恨可以从他据说在战胜他兄弟时说出的卑鄙言论中得到证明，他把后者称为“那个自称卡斯蒂利亚国王的犹太bitch养的”（fi de puta Judio, que se llama rey de Castilla）。

The 13th century marked a turning point in the history of Christian Iberia. Under the leadership of Ferdinand III “the Saint” (r. 1217– 52) and James (Jaime) I “the Conqueror” (r. 1213–76) the respective kingdoms of Castile and Aragon vastly expanded their realms at the expense of al-Andalus, capturing Córdoba, Seville, Jaen, Valencia, Murcia, the Balearic Islands, and other regions, such that Muslim Iberia was reduced to the tiny kingdom of Granada. The immense power and wealth of these Christian kingdoms decreased their reliance upon their Jewish subjects at the very time that the papacy had hardened its stance toward Jewish-Christian relations after the edicts of Lateran IV. The retention of a few privileged Jews as chief rabbi, chief tax collector, or royal physician could not deter and often furnished the pretext for the anti-Jewish riots and massacres of the 14th century that culminated in the horrors of 1391. One of the catalysts in the civil war that broke out between the Trastamara brothers, King Peter (Pedro) I of Castile (1350–69) and Henry (Enrique) II de Trastamara (r. 1366–79), had been the extraordinary prominence of Jewish officials in Peter’s court. Henry’s hatred of Peter’s proJewish policy is attested in the despicable statement he reportedly uttered upon his victory over his brother, referring to the latter as “that Jewish son of a bitch who called himself the king of Castile” ( fi de puta Judio, que se llama rey de Castilla).

          亨利的胜利在1366年引发了对支持佩德罗的犹太社区的反犹骚乱（“Pillary”，历史术语，柱子上的木制框架，头部和手上有孔，以前将违规者锁在其中，以作为惩罚暴露在公众的蔑视之下），并在一些地区进行了屠杀。更为严重的是，亨利与继任者颁布的法令远远超过了复兴的西哥特法典所设想的限制。目标不再仅仅是遏制犹太人的政治和经济活动，确保犹太人与基督徒的隔离——尽管这些都是理所当然的。亨利的措施旨在使犹太人彻底陷入贫困并受到羞辱。特拉斯塔马拉内战后，托莱多和其他地方的许多犹太人死于饥荒，而不是因为屠杀。

Henry’s victory precipitated in 1366 the pillary, pogroms, and in some areas massacres of Jewish communities who had supported Pedro. Even more serious were the edicts that Henry and his successors issued that far exceeded the restrictions envisioned by the revived Visigoth code. The goal was no longer merely to contain Jewish political and economic activities and ensure the segregation of Jews from Christians—although these were taken for granted. Henry’s measures sought the complete impoverishment and humiliation of the Jews. After the Trastamara civil war, many Jews in Toledo and elsewhere died of famine rather than as a result of massacre.

Converso 现象（源于发生在伊比利亚半岛（历史上的西班牙和葡萄牙）的宗教裁判所和大屠杀。Converso 是在西班牙和/或葡萄牙皈依罗马天主教的犹太人，特别是在 14 和 15 世纪）

          1390年，卡斯蒂利亚国王约翰（胡安）一世去世，将王国交给他11岁的体弱儿子亨利三世（1390-1406）。随后无法无天的局面使塞维利亚的一位有权势的大执事和有魅力的传教士费朗·马丁内斯在卡斯蒂利亚各地掀起了屠杀犹太人的浪潮。在另一位魅力十足的传教士文森特·费雷尔（1416年去世）的煽动下，集体迫害和屠杀蔓延到阿拉贡王国。犹太人对这些事件的反应与阿什肯纳兹所推崇的Kiddush ha-Shem（“殉道”）的做法有明显不同。据统计，整个半岛有成千上万的犹太人接受了随后的强制洗礼，从而产生了“皈依基督教的犹太人”这一社会现象。正如大卫·奈恩伯格（David Nirenberg）和其他学者表明那样，许多犹太人皈依基督教绝不是减少了，而是加剧了基督教对犹太人和新基督教皈依者的怀疑和怨恨。犹太人的皈依并不一定会切断一个特定家庭中犹太人和converso之间的关系，大多数converso继续居住在犹太人的区域内。

In 1390 King John (Juan) I of Castile died, leaving the realm in the hands of his infirm 11- year-old son, Henry III (1390–1406). The situation of lawlessness that ensued allowed a powerful archdeacon and charismatic preacher of Seville, Ferrán Martínez, to unleash a wave of massacres of Jewish populations throughout Castile. The pogroms and massacres spread to the Kingdom of Aragon, inflamed by another charismatic preacher, Vincent Ferrer (d. 1416). Jewish response to these events differs markedly from the practice of Kiddush ha-Shem (“martyrdom”) extolled in Ashkenaz. By all accounts thousands of Jews across the peninsula submitted to the ensuing forced baptisms, giving rise to the social phenomenon of the converso (“Jewish convert to Christianity”). As David Nirenberg and other scholars have persuasively shown, the conversion of many Jews to Christianity in no way diminished but rather intensified Christian suspicion of and resentment toward the Jews and the new Christian converts. Jewish conversion did not necessarily sever relations between Jewish and converso members of a given family, and most conversos continued to reside within the Jewish quarters.

          对皈依者仍然是“潜在犹太人”的根深蒂固的怀疑，促使文森特·费雷尔敦促卡斯蒂利亚和阿拉贡的国王禁止犹太人和converso或“老基督徒”之间的社会交往。更重要的是对立教宗本笃十三世采取的行动。本笃十三世与阿拉贡国王一起组织了为期两年的惊人的托尔托萨之争（1413-14年），由热心的converso圣达菲的杰罗尼莫领导的基督教神学家与拉比约瑟夫·阿尔博领导的犹太拉比进行辩论。辩论会是13世纪建立的一个机构，目的是让犹太神学家与教会进行公开辩论，以证明犹太教的错误。在早期的争论中，最引人注目的是巴黎（1240年）和巴塞罗那（1263年）的争论，犹太代表获得了主持当局的豁免权，免于遭到报复。然而，在托尔托萨的争论中，这种豁免权并没有出现。辩论的问题是犹太人的弥赛亚概念和《塔木德》的合法性，而犹太人试图对基督教的指控作出回应的每一次尝试都会受到指控为异端的威胁。

Deep-seated suspicions that the converts remained “crypto-Jews” prompted Vincent Ferrer to urge the kings of Castile and Aragon to prohibit social intercourse between Jews and conversos or “old Christians.” Even more significant were the actions taken by the antipope Benedict XIII. Benedict organized with the king of Aragon the astonishing two-year Disputation of Tortosa (1413–14) between Christian theologians, headed by the zealous converso Geronimo de Santa Fe, and Jewish rabbis under the leadership of Rabbi Joseph Albo. The disputation was an institution created in the 13th century for engaging Jewish theologians in a public debate with the church for the purpose of proving the errors of Judaism. In earlier disputations, most notably those of Paris (1240) and Barcelona (1263), the Jewish delegates had been granted immunity from reprisals by the presiding authorities. No such immunity was forthcoming in the Tortosa disputation, however. The issues under debate were the Jewish concepts of the Messiah and the legitimacy of the Talmud, and every Jewish attempt to respond to the Christian charges was met with the threat of the accusation of heresy.

          基督教胜利后，对立教宗本笃十三世于1415年发布了教皇诏书，为管理犹太社区的限制钉下最后的钉子。犹太人被剥夺了最后的宗教和公民自治的残余权利。他们被剥夺了拥有或研究《塔木德经》、烘烤或出售无酵面包、担任公职、从事任何种类的职业或医疗工艺、从事放贷或未经君主明确许可征收公共税的权利。他们还被禁止离开这个国家，那些被发现帮助他们试图离开的人将被处以重罚。

In the wake of the inevitable Christian victory, the antipope Benedict XIII issued a papal bull in 1415 that placed the final nail in the coffin of restrictions governing the Jewish community. Jews were stripped of the last remnants of religious and civil autonomy. They were denied the right to own or study the Talmud, to bake or sell unleavened bread, to hold public office, to engage in any sort of vocational or medical craft, to practice moneylending, or to levy communal taxes without the express permission of the monarch. They were also forbidden to leave the country, and those found aiding them in their attempt to do so were severely fined.

          教皇于1460年至1467年在巴伦西亚对异教徒和converso进行了审讯，1481年在塞维利亚进行了火刑（1481年2月12日，在塞维利亚，12名皈依者被活活烧死，原因是他们涉嫌在最早记录的Auto da Fe（信仰法案）中信奉犹太教。），1483年驱逐了安达卢西亚的犹太人，随后多米尼加修士托马斯·德·托尔克马达被任命为卡斯蒂利亚和阿拉贡的总审讯官（1473-98年统治）。据称，converso和犹太人之间的阴谋导致了1484年萨拉戈萨审问者佩德罗·德·阿尔布斯被谋杀，这引起了人们对converso和犹太人进一步密谋的担忧。这些怀疑最终导致了1491年的巫术审判，指责converso和犹太人钉死了“拉瓜迪亚的圣子”。与14世纪法国和德国流传的血腥诽谤指控一样，拉瓜迪亚（托莱多）圣子的指控也是以犹太人和converso绑架了一名基督教儿童并实施仪式性谋杀的虚假谣言为中心，死去的孩子成为崇拜者的对象。

Papal inquisitions against heretics and conversos in Valencia in 1460 through 1467, autos-da-fé in Seville in 1481, and expulsion of Andalusian Jews in 1483 were followed by the Dominican friar Tomás de Torquemada’s appointment as inquisitor general of Castile then also of Aragon (r. 1473–98). The alleged plot between conversos and Jews, which led to the murder of the inquisitor Pedro de Arbues in Zaragoza in 1484, engendered fears of further converso-Jewish conspiracy. These suspicions culminated in the sorcery trials of 1491 accusing conversos and Jews of crucifying “the holy child of La Guardia.” As did the blood libel accusations circulating in 14th-century France and Germany, the Holy Child of La Guardia (Toledo) claims centered upon the false rumor that Jews and conversos had kidnapped a Christian child and committed an act of ritual murder. The dead child became the object of cult devotion.

1492年

          1492年对西班牙来说是奇迹的一年。斐迪南国王和伊莎贝拉王后完成了对格拉纳达的重新征服，格拉纳达是伊比利亚地区最后的穆斯林据点。1492年还开启了“地理大发现”（大航海时代）。热那亚水手克里斯多福·哥伦布利用一位犹太制图师百年来的制图成果，说服了信仰天主教的西班牙女王资助横跨大西洋的远洋航行。

The year 1492 was a miracle year for Spain. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella completed their Reconquista of Granada, the last Muslim stronghold in Iberia. The year 1492 also initiated the Age of Discovery. The Genoese sailor Christopher Columbus used a Jewish mapmaker’s century-old cartographic creation to convince the Catholic queen of Spain to fund the ocean voyage across the Atlantic.

          在哥伦布和他的航海家们发现美洲并为新发现的土地而欢欣鼓舞的同一年，犹太人也开始了对新土地的探索之旅。1492年初，托马斯·德·托尔克马达向他的天主教君主们提议驱逐剩余的犹太人。斐迪南国王和伊莎贝拉王后继续狂热地进行宗教裁判，尽管他们的犹太国宝级人物提出了强有力的人道克制的论据。他们无视犹太人对其王国经济的实用必要性的证明，于3月签署了驱逐令，在4月宣布了驱逐令，并要求所有犹太人在7月底前离开。

The same year that Columbus and his navigators discovered America and exulted in their new-found land, Jews also commenced voyages of exploration to new lands. In early 1492 Torquemada proposed to his Catholic monarchs the final expulsion of the Jews. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella continued the Inquisition with fervor despite powerful arguments for humane restraint from their Jewish national treasurer. They ignored proofs of the pragmatic necessity of Jews to the economy of their kingdom. They signed the edict of expulsion in March, proclaimed it in April, and demanded all Jews be gone by the end of July.

          当犹太人被逐出西班牙时，他们将其财富和文化装在脑袋里、心里和书里。在他们在新的国家建立新的犹太生活形式之前，他们在世界范围内游荡，在任何可能的地方定居。许多人越过边境来到葡萄牙。这位国王很快就在1496年制定了自己的驱逐令，并在1497年强制改变信仰，首先是犹太儿童，然后是成年人，对新基督徒进行大范围的祝福。

When the Jewish community was expelled from Spain, they carried its wealth and culture in heads, hearts, and books. Before they built new forms of Jewish life in new countries, they wandered the world and settled wherever they could. Many crossed the border to Portugal. That king soon formulated his own expulsion orders in 1496 in advance of forced conversions in 1497, first of Jewish children then of adults in mass blessings of new Christians.

拜占庭帝国的犹太人

          拜占庭对犹太地区三个世纪的统治时期与罗马帝国第四世纪的基督教化和穆斯林对叙利亚和巴勒斯坦的征服（约637年）相吻合。这一时期见证了犹太人和基督教社区之间激烈而痛苦的神学和社会斗争。同时，存在着敌对群体之间文化影响的显著证据。

The three centuries of Byzantine rule over Judaea coincide with the fourth-century Christianization of the Roman Empire and the conquest of Syria and Palestine by the Muslims circa 637. This period witnessed intense and bitter theological and social struggles between the Jewish and the Christian communities. At the same time remarkable evidence exists of cultural influences between the rival groups.

帝国对犹太人的政策

          在君士坦提乌斯二世（Constantius II）统治时期（337-361），犹太人皈依基督教是官方国策。加利利(Galilee)爆发了一场反对皈依政策的犹太起义，很快被镇压。在加利利被认定为犹太人异议的地方被摧毁，两个最重要的犹太教学院，即Tzippori和Lydda，被毁坏。狄奥多西二世（408-450年）和查士丁尼一世（527-565年）在拜占庭早期实行的法律改革包括许多不利于犹太人的公民和宗教自由的政策。438年颁布的《狄奥多西法典》禁止犹太人拥有奴隶、担任公职或建造新的犹太教堂，并规定犹太人与基督徒通婚和犹太人改变基督徒的信仰是死罪。查士丁尼皇帝的“新法律”（Novellae）禁止了《米书拿》，谴责用希伯来语阅读犹太宗教文本，并鼓励臣民破坏犹太人的财产。民众的反犹太情绪受到了圣金口约翰（John Chrystostom）主教（卒于407年）等富有魅力的布道者的鼓舞。

During the reign of Constantius II (r. 337–361) the conversion of the Jews to Christianity was official state policy. A Jewish revolt against the conversion policy erupted in Galilee and was duly quashed. The cities of Galilee identified as a hotbead of Jewish dissent were destroyed, and two of the most important yeshivas, at Tzippori and Lydda, were ruined. The legal reforms imposed in early Byzantium by Theodosius II (r. 408–450) and Justinian I (r. 527–565) included numerous policies detrimental to the civil and religious liberties of the Jews. The Theodosian Code, promulgated in 438, forbade Jews to own slaves, hold public office, or build new synagogues and made intermarriage between Jews and Christians and Jewish proselytization of Christians capital offenses. Emperor Justinian’s “New Laws” (Novellae) banned the Mishnah, censured the reading of Jewish religious texts in Hebrew, and encouraged the destruction of Jewish property. Popular anti-Jewish sentiment was inspired by the rousing sermons of charismatic preachers such as Bishop John Chrystostom (d. 407).

          这些诏令中有许多条款很难在实践中应用，因为皇帝的注意力被转移到保护帝国免受波斯萨珊王朝敌人入侵这一更直接的问题上。然而，在611年的入侵中，犹太人遭受的不利条件使他们与波斯人站在一起的做法似乎合理化了。犹太士兵在扫荡行动中与萨珊王朝并肩作战，导致数以万计的基督徒死亡，海伦娜皇后（卒于329年）建造的圣墓教堂被毁。他们的支持与忠诚会得到波斯人补偿的希望很快就破灭了。事实证明，萨珊王朝对犹太人的迫害比拜占庭王朝更加无情。作为回应，犹太人领袖与拜占庭皇帝希拉克略（Heraclius，610-641年）联系，承诺帮助他夺回犹太地区，以换取在更有利的条件下接受其统治。629年巴勒斯坦领土被收复后，希拉克略背弃了他的承诺，下令屠杀所有犹太人并摧毁他们的犹太教堂。那些设法逃到北非的人仍然处于危险之中，因为随后的帝国诏书命令强迫整个帝国的所有犹太人皈依。穆斯林对巴勒斯坦、叙利亚、埃及和北非的征服拯救了犹太人，使他们免遭可能的宗教灭绝——如果不是肉体灭绝的话。

Many of these imperial edicts were difficult to apply in practice because the emperor’s attention was diverted to the more immediate concern of protecting the empire from incursions from its Persian Sassanid enemies. Nevertheless, the disadvantages suffered by the Jews legitimated their siding with the Persians during the invasions of 611. Jewish soldiers fought alongside the Sassanids in a moppingup operation that resulted in the death of tens of thousands of Christians and the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, built by Empress Helena (d. 329). Hopes that their support and loyalty would be recompensed by the Persians were quickly dashed. The Sassanids proved to be even more relentless than the Byzantines in their persecution of the Jews. In response Jewish leaders contacted the Byzantine emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641) and pledged their aid in helping him to retake Judaea in exchange for accepting his rule under more favorable conditions. After the Palestinian territories were recovered in 629, Heraclius reneged on his promise and ordered the massacre of all Jews and the destruction of their synagogues. Those who managed to flee to North Africa remained at risk owing to a subsequent imperial edict ordering the forced conversion of all Jews throughout the empire. The Muslim conquests of Palestine, Syria, Egypt, and North Africa saved the Jews from probable religious, if not physical, extermination.

犹太法权威在巴比伦的兴起

          四世纪，一位有远见的犹太族长拉比希勒尔二世做出了一个决定，这个决定将永远影响巴勒斯坦犹太人和散居地犹太人之间的关系：他创建了一个官方日历。为了理解这一行为的意义，人们必须认识到，早些时候，巴勒斯坦族长会根据从犹太地区看到的月亮来决定犹太教礼仪日历的日期。因此，散居海外的犹太人要依靠犹太教长来决定节日和仪式的庆祝活动。通过这个简单的行动，希勒尔二世将散居地的犹太人从对犹太的依赖中解放出来，鉴于此时巴勒斯坦的犹太人所面临的压迫情况，这是一个明智的决定。

A visionary fourth-century Jewish patriarch, Rabbi Hillel II, took a fateful decision that would forever affect the relation between the Palestinian Jews and the Jews of the Diaspora: He created an official calendar. To understand the implications of this act, one must realize that earlier the Palestinian patriach would determine the dates of the Jewish liturgical calendar according to sighting of the Moon from Judaea. Diaspora Jews were thus dependent upon the Judaean patriarch to determine the celebration of festivals and rituals. With this simple act Hillel II liberated Diaspora Jews from dependency on Judaea—an astute decision given the situation of oppression facing the Jews of Palestine at this time.

          巴比伦犹太教的崛起和权威是希勒尔拉比法令的直接后果。五世纪开始编纂的《巴比伦塔木德》将使它的巴勒斯坦对手黯然失色，成为基督教和伊斯兰教大多数地区的犹太人最主要的犹太法权威。

Babylonian Judaism rose to prominence and authority as a direct consequence of Rabbi Hillel’s decree. The Babylonian Talmud, which began to be compiled in the fifth century, would overshadow its Palestinian rival as the preeminent authority of Jewish law for Jews in most regions of Christendom and Islam.

犹太-拜占庭文化接触

          早在拜占庭帝国崛起之前，犹太区、希腊和安纳托利亚的犹太人就已经彻底希腊化了。尽管有狄奥多西的禁令，但这种共同文化的实物遗迹在六世纪建造的众多新犹太教堂中得以保存，这些犹太教堂含有希腊化的建筑和艺术元素。最引人注目的是精美的马赛克瓷砖地板，这些地板上装饰着亚伯拉罕和其他圣经人物的图像、十二星座、犹太教灯台以及其他有趣的犹太教和外邦人图案的混合体。

Long before the rise of the Byzantine Empire, the Jews of Judaea, Greece, and Anatolia had been thoroughly Hellenized. The physical remains of this shared culture are evidenced in the survival of numerous new synagogues built in the sixth century—despite the Theodosian prohibition—that contain the architectonic and artistic elements of Hellenism. Most remarkable are the beautifully executed mosaic tile floors that adorn the synagogues with pictoral images of Abraham and other biblical characters, zodiacs, menorahs, and other interesting blends of Jewish and gentile motifs.

伊斯兰帝国的犹太人

          犹太人和其他非穆斯林民族在伊斯兰帝国中作为「保护民」（齐米，也译作迪米）受到保护。《欧麦尔条约》为犹太人提供了合法的二等公民身份和受保护的、枚举的权利。犹太人作为圣经中的民族，与基督教徒共享这种从属地位。犹太人在商业、农业、政府和医学方面取得了卓越的成就，使他们能够与穆斯林平等地跨越社会的界限。犹太人还成为伊斯兰法庭的重要朝臣、外交官、军队将领和政治家。逾越他们被分配的从属地位的犹太人往往会引起政治上的敌意，并遭受当地可怕的迫害。然而，犹太人和穆斯林在地中海商业贸易和旅行中的密切合作，这些在两种文化中都受到尊重的职业，刺激了相互依存、相互尊重的往来关系，以及暂时的黄金和平时期。

Under Islam Jews and other non-Muslim peoples of the book were protected as dhimmis. The Pact of Umar provided Jews with legal second-class citizenship and protected, enumerated rights. Jews as peoples of the book shared this subordinate position with Christians. Jews attained excellence in commerce, agriculture, government, and medicine that enabled them to cross social boundaries as equals with Muslims. Jews also became important courtiers, diplomats, army generals, and statesmen for Islamic courts. Jews who exceeded their assigned subordinate positions often caused political animosity and suffered terrible local persecutions. Yet close collaboration between Jews and Muslims in Mediterranean merchant trade and travel, professions honored in both cultures, stimulated interdependence, mutual respect for talent, and temporary golden periods of peace.

           倭马亚王朝是第一个对伊拉克、叙利亚、巴勒斯坦以及中东和安达卢西亚其他地区的主要犹太社区建立统治的王朝。倭马亚王朝掌权后，重新确立了犹太流亡者（希伯来语：Resh galuta）的形象，即流亡的犹太社区的领袖。流亡者的地位可以追溯到巴比伦囚禁时代（公元前597-537年），当时犹太人被强行从巴勒斯坦迁移到巴比伦。流亡者担任犹太人和政治当局之间的官方联络人，他的司法职能包括任命首席法官和任命Archisynagogus（在古代犹太教中，Archisynagogus（希腊语ἀρχισυνάγω；希伯来语ראש הכנסת；字面意思是“犹太教堂长官”）是监督与犹太教堂的宗教服务有关的事务的官员），以及后来的Goan，或塔木德学院的院长。流亡者的职位一直持续到公元六世纪，萨珊人废除了这一职位，期间没有中断过。倭马亚王朝恢复了流亡者的身份，并对流亡者表示尊重。倭马亚王朝严格执行“迪米”地位的规范，不允许非穆斯林人担任对穆斯林人有权威的职位。

The Umayyads were the first dynasty to establish their rule over the major Jewish communities of Iraq, Syria, Palestine, and elsewhere in the Middle East and al-Andalus. When they assumed power the Umayyads reestablished the figure of the Jewish exilarch (Heb. Resh galuta), the head of the Jewish community in exile. The position of the exilarch dates to the era of the Babylonian Captivity (597–537 B.C.E.), when the Jews were forcibly removed from Palestine to Babylonia. The exilarch served as the official liaison between the Jews and the political authorities, and his juridical functions included the naming of the chief judge and the appointment of the archisynagogus and, later, the goan, or head of the Talmudic academy. The office of the exilarch continued without interruption until the sixth century C.E., when the Sassanians abolished it. The Umayyads restored the exilarchate and showed honor and respect to the geonim. Scrupulously applying the norms of dhimmi status, the Umayyads did not allow non-Muslims to hold positions of authority over Muslims.

犹太教卡拉派的分裂

          随着口头法律在210年被写成文字，以及随之而来的围绕《塔木德》的生活和虔诚信仰，犹太人开始更加重视拉比的权威。在巴勒斯坦和巴比伦的犹太人中心地带，以及伊斯兰世界其他地区和欧洲散居地的社区都生活在拉比统治的直接权威之下。然而，并非所有犹太人都接受了新的拉比犹太教。在八世纪的伊拉克，出现了一群被称为Karaite的持不同意见者。该运动的创始人是阿南·本·大卫，据说他挑战了新当选的流亡者、他的兄弟约西亚·本·大卫的权威。阿南的正式挑战构成了对伊斯兰权威的反叛，因为流亡者是由阿拔斯王朝的哈里发曼苏尔（754-775）任命的。阿南被正式监禁，在狱中，他听取了他的同伴哈乃斐派法学家阿布·哈尼法的建议，后者指示他发展一种新的宗教，其与拉比犹太教的差异将由一群追随者明确阐述和辩护，结果促成了卡拉派运动的诞生。

With the rendering of the oral law into writing in 210 and the attendant focus of Jewish life and piety around the Talmud, greater emphasis began to be placed on the authority of the rabbis. Communities in the Jewish heartlands of Palestine and Babylonia as well as in the rest of the Islamic world and the European Diaspora lived under the immediate authority of rabbinic rule. Not all Jews accepted the new rabbinic Judaism, however. A group of dissidents known as the Karaites emerged in eighthcentury Iraq. The founder of the movement was Anan ben David (alive 760), who reportedly challenged the authority of the newly elected exilarch, his brother, Josieh ben David. Anan’s formal challenge constituted a rebellion against Islamic authority since the exilarch was installed by the Abbasid caliph, in this case alMansur (r. 754–775). Anan was duly incarcerated, and while in prison he heeded the advice of his fellow inmate the Hanifi jurist Numan ibn Thabit Abu Hanifa, who instructed him to develop a new religion whose differences with rabbinic Judaism would be clearly expounded and defended by a group of followers. The result was the Karaite movement.

          卡拉派犹太教严格以《圣经》为基础，拒绝《塔木德》和拉比解释法律的权威，在庆祝犹太教仪式和节庆日方面比拉比犹太教严格得多，也清醒得多。遵循阿布·哈尼法的训诂，卡拉派对神圣的文本进行了类比和神秘的解释。卡拉派还拒绝了九世纪马所拉的新传统，即用元音、重音和歌唱标记来固定希伯来语圣经文本的发音和含义，尽管许多最好的马所拉语法学家后来都是卡拉派。由于没有人知道这种做法的起源，早期的卡拉派拒绝了这种做法，理由是在西奈山上揭示的书卷缺乏这种标记。

Karaite Judaism is strictly Bible-based, rejects the Talmud and rabbinic authority to interpret the law, and is far stricter and more sober than rabbinical Judaism in the celebration of Jewish rituals and feast days. Following the exegetical techniques of Abu Hanifa, the Karaites applied analogical and mystical interpretations to the sacred text. The Karaites also rejected the novel ninth-century Masoretic tradition of marking the Hebrew biblical text with vowels, accents, and singing marks to fix pronunciation and meaning, although many of the best Masoretic grammarians would later be Karaites. Since no one knew the origins of this practice, the early Karaites rejected it on the basis that the scrolls revealed on Mount Sinai lacked such marks.

           拉比对卡拉派运动的反应没过多久就出现了。最重要和最响亮的反对者是巴比伦学院的教士们。萨阿迪亚·果昂（882-942）用大量的信件、论文和法学答辩来驳斥卡拉派的信仰。他是犹太哲学界的杰出人物，利用阿拉伯语言和希腊哲学将同化的犹太人重新集中到妥拉（字面意思为指引，它指导犹太教徒的生活方式，因此，所有的犹太教律法与教导，通通都可以被涵盖到妥拉中）和哈拉卡（犹太教口传律法的统称。其内容包括所有《米书拿》与《革马拉》里的律法、规章，以及与它们相关的一切判例与参考意见）的核心价值上。当萨阿迪亚试图推翻在位的流亡者而超越了他的权力范围时，哈里发将他从gaon（授予某些犹太拉比的非正式头衔）的位置上撤下来。萨阿迪亚的继任者Sherira bar Channina（906-1006）在伊拉克边境之外的反犹太主义斗争中发挥了重要作用。一位来自北非的犹太拉比写信给他，请他提供建议，驳斥卡拉派关于拉比犹太教缺乏合法性的说法。作为回应，Sherira bar Channina写了一本关于《塔木德》发展历史的巨著，极力捍卫它在从西奈山的启示到圣人的不间断传播链中的永恒性。

The rabbinic reaction to the Karaite movement did not take long to emerge. The most significant and vociferant opponents were the geonim of the Babylonian academy. Saadya Gaon (882–942) dedicated numerous letters, treatises, and juridical responsa to refuting Karaite beliefs. He was a towering figure in Jewish philosophy who utilized the Arabic language and Greek philosophy to refocus assimilated Jews onto the core values of Torah and Halachah. When Saadya exceeded the limits of his authoritiy by attempting to depose the reigning exilarch, the caliph had him removed from his position as gaon. Saadya’s successor, Sherira bar Channina (906–1006), played a major role in the fight against Karaitism beyond the borders of Iraq. A Jewish rabbi from North Africa wrote to him asking his advice in refuting the Karaite claims that rabbinic Judaism lacked legitimacy. In response, Rabbi Sherira wrote a massive tome of the history of the development of the Talmud, vigorously defending its eternality in an unbroken chain of transmission from the revelation on Mount Sinah to the sages.

开罗的Geniza（Genizah）

          Geniza是一个特殊的储藏室，用来保存任何含有上帝之名（在许多文化中，关于名字传播的态度是保密的。在犹太教中，神的名字的发音一直受到非常小心的保护）的文件。所有过时的宗教、礼仪和法律文件都被存放在这种仓库里，或者与编辑这些文件的学者埋在一起。在散居地，Geniza肯定也是一种普遍现象，尽管它们肯定经常在屠杀、迫害和破坏犹太社区的动荡中丢失。幸运的是，有一个重要的犹太教堂确实在时间的流逝中幸存下来。位于福斯塔特（老开罗）的本以斯拉犹太教堂建造于九世纪，是该地区的主要教堂。迈蒙尼德（Maimonides）等名人在那里授课和祈祷。19世纪时，学者们在古犹太教堂的阁楼上发现了Geniza，这里有超过100,000页记录了从伊斯兰统治时期到第一次十字军东征期间犹太人在埃及和巴勒斯坦的生活和习俗，还有许多geonim（作为巴比伦大学校长的头衔，它的意思类似于“阁下”）的法学论文，以及被认为丢失的珍贵文本，如希伯来语版本的《西拉赫之书》(Book of Sirach)。犹太人历史上一些最重要的人物，如前面提到的萨阿迪亚·果昂，主要是通过这些文件的存留而了解到他们的生活。开罗的Geniza包含了一个关于地中海犹太人历史、习俗、仪式惯例和与非犹太人关系的信息宝库，还有大量13至15世纪的阿什肯纳兹著作、信件和piyyutim（礼仪诗），使其成为了解米兹拉希（中东）和阿什肯纳兹犹太历史的最重要来源之一。

A geniza is a special storage room used to preserve any document that contains the name of God. All obsolete religious, liturgical, and legal documents were stored in such warehouses or buried with the scholar who had redacted them. The geniza must have been a widespread phenomenon in the Diaspora as well, although they must have often been lost in the upheavals of massacre, persecution, and destruction of Jewish communities. Fortunately, a significant geniza did survive the passage of time: The Ezra Synagogue located in Fustat (Old Cairo) was founded in the ninth century and was the chief synagogue of the region. Luminaries such as Maimonides taught and prayed there. In the 19th century scholars discovered the geniza in the attic of the ancient synagogue. Investigations uncovered over 100,000 pages documenting the life and customs of Jews in Egypt and Palestine from the period of Islamic rule to the First Crusade, numerous juridical responsa from the geonim, and precious texts thought to have been lost such as the Hebrew version of the Book of Ben Sirach. The lives of some of the most important figures of Jewish history, such as the aforementioned Saadya Gaon, are known principally through the survival of these documents. The Cairo Geniza contains a treasure trove of information about Mediterranean Jewish history, customs, ritual practices, and relations with non-Jews, as well as a wealth of 13th- to 15th-century Ashkenazic writings, letters, and piyyutim (liturgical poems), making it one of the most significant sources of Mizrahi (Middle Eastern) and Ashkenazic Jewish history.

法蒂玛王朝的宽容，塞尔柱和马穆鲁克的限制

          在阿拔斯-巴格达、法蒂玛-开罗和倭马亚-西班牙的哈里发时代，犹太人作为其部长、外交官、朝臣和翻译而崭露头角。犹太社区有时在穆斯林内部王朝的争斗中具有很高地位。例如，什叶派的法蒂玛王朝反叛了阿拔斯王朝，于909年在突尼斯宣布了自己为哈里发，并在969年将其帝国扩张到埃及、巴勒斯坦和叙利亚。法蒂玛王朝建立了通往东方的对立贸易路线，以抢夺阿拔斯王朝的生意，并吸引犹太商人来提升法蒂玛王朝的经济。什叶派的法蒂玛王朝里拥有众多少数民族，由于他们不能指望逊尼派穆斯林的行政支持，于是吸引了许多犹太人和基督教徒加入他们的宫廷和政府。出于需要，法蒂玛王朝忽略了许多“伊斯兰教义”的规定。基督徒和犹太人在建造新的教堂或公开庆祝他们的宗教节日方面没有遇到任何障碍，并享有与穆斯林臣民相同的基本公民权利。他们甚至可以雇用穆斯林作为仆人。哈基姆·比阿穆尔·阿拉（al-Hakim bi Amri Allah，996-1021年）的统治代表了法蒂玛王朝宽容的短暂中断。1012年，他恢复了对迪米法规的严格遵守，禁止穆斯林对迪米人的服从，要求迪米人穿上与众不同的服装，并命令摧毁许多基督教堂和犹太教堂。这些做法被他的继任者取消了。

Jews rose to prominence as ministers, diplomats, courtiers, and translators during the caliphates of Abbasid Baghdad, Fatimid Cairo, and Umayyad Spain. Jewish communities sometimes had a high profile in Muslim internal dynastic feuds. For instance, the Shiite Fatimids rebelled against the Abbasids, proclaimed their own caliphate in Tunisia in 909, and extended their empire to Egypt, Palestine, and Syria by 969. The Fatimids established rival trade routes to the East to draw business away from the Abbasids and attracted Jewish merchants to stimulate the Fatimid economy. The Shiite Fatimids were numerical minorities in the countries where they ruled, and since they could not count upon the administrative support of Sunni Muslims, they attracted numerous Jews and Christians to their court and government. Out of necessity the Fatimids ignored many of the prescriptions of dhimmism: Christians and Jews experienced no obstacles to building new temples or publicly celebrating their religious feasts and enjoyed the same basic civil rights as Muslim subjects.They could even employ Muslims as servants. The reign of al-Hakim bi Amri Allah (r. 996–1021) represents a brief interruption of Fatimid tolerance. In 1012 he reinstituted the strict observance of dhimmi regulations forbidding the subordination of Muslims to dhimmis, demanding that dhimmis wear distinguishing attire, and ordering the destruction of many churches and synagogues. These practices were rescinded by his successors.

          犹太人在反对阿拔斯王朝的另一个中东势力——塞尔柱人手下的处境就不那么好了。到11世纪中叶，土耳其塞尔柱人在小亚细亚、波斯、伊拉克、印度和阿拉伯半岛的部分地区从阿拔斯王朝（和拜占庭王朝）手中夺取了权力，并在名义上进行统治。塞尔柱人后来皈依了伊斯兰教，并参与了对拜占庭人的战斗，他们对非穆斯林臣民实行最严格的迪米限制，从而进一步使他们的穆斯林资格合法化。在塞尔柱人的压力下，阿拔斯哈里发于1058年颁布了一项法令，强迫犹太人、基督徒和其他异教徒在衣服上佩戴识别标志，异教徒的政府官员也被立即撤职。1085年的一项哈里发法令要求在迪米人的头巾上再戴上一个识别标志，强迫关闭所有的酒馆，终止所有公开展示非穆斯林宗教的行为，并禁止迪米人在祈祷时提高声音。在1091年的哈里发法令中进一步强加了的限制性和侮辱性的着装规定后，许多犹太人逃往西班牙。

The Jews fared less well under the other Middle Eastern power opposing the Abbasids, the Seljuks. By the mid-11th century, the Turkish Seljuks had seized power from the Abbasids (and the Byzantines) in Asia Minor, Persia, Iraq, India, and part of the Arabian Peninsula, ruling in all but name. Recent converts to Islam who were also engaged in battle against the Byzantines, the Seljuks further legitimated their Muslim credentials by imposing the strictest application of dhimmi restrictions upon their non-Muslim subjects. Under pressure from the Seljuks, the Abbasid caliph issued a decree in 1058 that forced Jewish, Christian, and other dhimmis to wear distinguishing signs on their clothing, and dhimmi government officials were summarily removed from their posts. A caliphal decree of 1085 imposed the wearing of a further distinguishing sign on dhimmi turbans, forced the closure of all wine taverns, put an end to all public displays of non-Muslim religion, and forbade dhimmis to raise their voices while praying. In the wake of the imposition of further restrictive and humiliating dress codes in a caliphal decree of 1091, many Jews fled to Spain.

          马穆鲁克王朝在1260至1517年间统治了埃及、巴勒斯坦和叙利亚。这个由奴隶兵组成的王朝是在与十字军作战以及1260年在艾因·贾鲁战役（也叫阿音扎鲁特战役）（巴勒斯坦的拿撒勒）出人意料地击败了可怕的蒙古人的背景下建立起来的。马穆鲁克人对基督教徒和一般的异教徒深表怀疑。作为一项政策，马穆鲁克人对犹太人和基督教徒严格实行羞辱性的着装规定，并强制执行其他有辱人格的习俗。例如，异教徒只能骑驴（从不骑贵族马），只能侧身骑马，并被禁止担任政府职务和在穆斯林人口中行医。酒和酒馆被禁止。到14世纪末，曾经繁荣昌盛的犹太社区已经沦为耶路撒冷、采法特、提比略和希伯伦等城市的贫困飞地。埃及和叙利亚曾经是来自西班牙和马格里布的犹太难民的灯塔（例如，西班牙人迈蒙尼德曾在埃及定居），埃及和叙利亚不再是犹太人于1492年逃离西班牙的目的地。

The Mamluk dynasty ruled Egypt, Palestine, and Syria between 1260 and 1517. The dynasty of slave soldiers had risen to power in the context of battles against the crusaders and the stunning defeat of the fearsome Mongols at Ayn Jalut (Nazareth, Palestine) in 1260. The Mamluks were deeply suspicious of Christians and dhimmis in general. As a matter of policy, the Mamluks strictly imposed humiliating dress codes upon Jews and Christians and enforced other degrading customs. For instance, dhimmis could only ride donkeys (never the noble horse) and only mount side-saddle and were barred from government positions and practice of medicine among the Muslim population. Wine and wine taverns were forbidden. By the late 14th century the once thriving and prosperous Jewish communities had been reduced to impoverished enclaves in the cities of Jerusalem, Safed, Tiberius, and Hebron. Once a beacon for Jewish refugees from Spain and the Maghrib—recall, for example, that the Spaniard Maimonides had settled in Egypt—Mamluk Egypt and Syria were no longer destinations for the Jews who fled Spain in 1492.

《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）

By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones

未完待续！