Byzantium at War AD 600-1453（战争中的拜占庭：公元600-1453年）（8）
作者：John Haldon约翰·哈尔顿
出版商：Routledge Taylor & Francis Group
自翻：流潋紫琳
（接上）
Defensive warfare
防御战
Wars can, crudely speaking, thus be divided into two broad categories, defensive and offensive, although it must be said at the outset that pre-emptive attacks could count as both, and were frequently so justified. Defensive fighting took several forms: guerrilla tactics against enemy invaders; major confrontations between field armies, often following a protracted period of manoeuvring in which each side tried to outwit the other; or a combination of the two. The defensive campaigns fought against the first Islamic armies took this form, with the imperial forces struggling to match the mobility and speed of the Arab raiders, who were able to deprive the Roman commanders of the initiative not simply by virtue of their fast-moving, hard-hitting tactics, but also because the type of warfare they practised made any notion of a regular front untenable.
（因此，粗略地说，战争可以分为两大类：防御性和进攻性的。首先必须说先发制人的攻击可以算作两者，并且经常被证明是合理的。防御战有几种形式：游击战术对抗入侵者；野战军之间的主要对抗，通常是在双方都试图以智取胜的长时间机动之后；亦或两者的结合。与第一批伊斯兰军队作战的防御运动采取了这种形式，帝国军队努力与阿拉伯袭击者的机动性和速度相匹敌，他们能够剥夺罗马指挥官的主动权，而不仅仅是凭借他们的快速移动，强硬的战术，但也因为他们实践的战争类型使得任何正规战线的概念都站不住脚。）
The Arab Islamic conquests radically altered the strategic and political geography of the whole east Mediterranean region. The complete failure of attempts to meet and drive back the invaders in open battle induced a major shift in strategy whereby open confrontations with the Muslim armies were avoided. The field armies were withdrawn first to north Syria and Mesopotamia, and shortly thereafter back to the line of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus ranges. By the mid-640s the armies which had operated in Syria, Palestine and Mesopotamia had been withdrawn into Anatolia. The regions across which they were based were determined by the ability of these districts to provide for the soldiers in terms of supplies and other requirements. The field forces thus came to be quartered across Asia Minor and Thrace, where they were now referred to by the Greek term for these districts, themata or 'themes'.
（信仰伊斯兰教的阿拉伯人的征服从根本上改变了整个东地中海地区的战略和政治地理。 在公开战斗中与入侵者会面和击退的尝试完全失败，导致战略发生重大转变，从而避免了与穆斯林军队的公开对抗。野战军首先撤退到叙利亚北部和美索不达米亚，之后不久又撤回金牛座和反金牛座山脉。到 640 年代中期，曾在叙利亚、巴勒斯坦和美索不达米亚作战的军队已撤回安纳托利亚。他们驻扎的地区取决于这些地区在补给和其他需求方面为士兵提供的能力。因此，野战部队驻扎在小亚细亚和色雷斯，在那里他们现在被希腊语称为这些辖区、行政区或“塞姆”。）
This distribution was intended both to meet logistical demands by providing each army with an adequate hinterland from which it could be supported and to meet the strategic needs of defence. But it was a very defensive strategy, and it meant that the economic hinterland of the frontier incurred substantial damage, subject as it was to regular devastation. There resulted the appearance by the 700s of a `no-man's land' between the settled and economically safer regions on both sides. The new arrangements did prevent the establishment by the Arabs of permanent bases in Asia Minor itself.
（这种分配旨在通过为每支军队提供足够的腹地来满足后勤需求，并满足防御的战略需要。但这是一种非常防御性的策略，这意味着边境的经济腹地遭受了重大破坏，并且经常遭受破坏。到了700年，双方的定居区和经济上更安全的地区之间出现了“无人区”。新的安排确实阻止了阿拉伯人在小亚细亚本身建立永久基地。）
The themata or themes were at first merely groupings of provinCes across which different armies were based. By 730 or thereabouts they had acquired a clear geographical identity; and by the later 8th century some elements of fiscal as well as military administration were set up on a thematic basis, although the late Roman provinces continued to subsist. The number of themata expanded as the empire's economic and political situation improved, partly through the original large military divisions being split up into different 'provincial' armies, and partly through the recovery in the last years of the 8th century and the reimposition of imperial authority over lands once held in the southern Balkans.
（军区制或塞姆制起初只是不同军队驻扎的省份的分组。 到 730 年左右，他们已经获得了清晰的地理特征； 到了 8 世纪后期，财政和军事管理的一些要素是在主题基础上建立的，尽管晚期罗马行省继续存在。 随着帝国经济和政治形势的改善，特玛塔的数量有所增加，部分原因是原有的大型军事部门被拆分为不同的“省级”军队，部分原因是 8 世纪最后几年的恢复和帝国权威的重新行使在巴尔干南部的土地上。）
The localisation of recruitment and military identities which resulted from these arrangements led to a distinction between the regular elements - full-time soldiers and the less competent or well-supplied militia-like elements in each theme region. In the 760s a small elite force, known as the human ['the regiments') was established under Constantine V (741-75), which quickly evolved into the elite field division for campaign purposes. It had better pay and discipline than both the regular and the part-time provincial units, and this was the first step in a tendency to recruit mercenary forces, both foreign and indigenous, to form special units and to serve for the duration of a particular campaign or group of campaigns. As imperial power recovered in the 9th and 10th centuries, the empire reasserted its military strength in the east, and the role and the proportion of such full-time units became ever more important.
（由这些安排导致的招募和军事身份的本地化导致在每个主题区域中区分正规元素 - 全职士兵和能力较差或供应充足的民兵式元素。在 760 年代，在君士坦丁五世（741-75）的领导下建立了一支小型精锐部队，称为'兵团'，该部队迅速演变为用于竞争目的的精锐野战师。它的薪酬和纪律比正规和兼职省级单位都好，这是招募外国和土著雇佣军组建特种部队并在特定时期服役的趋势的第一步。 9世纪和10世纪随着皇权的恢复，帝国在东方重新确立了军事实力，这些专职部队的作用和比例变得越来越重要。）
Defensive strategy was determined by several elements. To begin with, raiding forces were to be held and turned back at the Taurus and Anti-Taurus passes, wherever possible. Where this policy of meeting and repulsing hostile attacks at the frontier did not work, local forces would harass the invaders, keeping track of every movement and the location of each party or group. Numerous small forts and fortresses along the major routes, located at crossroads or locations where supplies might be stored as well as by the frontier passes through which enemy forces had to pass, reinforced the local troops. Although exposed to enemy action, these posts were a constant threat to any invading force. in addition, a series of frontier districts was set up in the 8th and 9th centuries as independent commands along the frontier, complementing the armies of the themes. Known as kleisourarchies (kleisourarchiai), they emphasised the highly localised pattern of defence.
（防御策略由几个要素决定。首先，在可能的情况下，袭击部队将在金牛座和反金牛座关口处被控制和折返。如果这种在边境会合和击退敌对袭击的政策不起作用，当地军队就会骚扰入侵者，跟踪每一个政党或团体的动向和位置。主要路线沿线的许多小堡垒和堡垒，位于十字路口或可能储存补给的地点以及敌军必须通过的边境通道，加强了当地军队。虽然暴露在敌人的行动中，但这些哨所对任何入侵部队都是持续的威胁。此外，8、9世纪还设立了一系列边疆区，作为沿边线的独立司令部，与主题军队相辅相成。他们被称为 kleisourarchies (kleisourarchiai)，强调高度本地化的防御模式。）
The empire suffered many defeats, especially in the earlier period, but it also witnessed some major successes, particularly where the invaders could be shadowed and the imperial armies brought together at the right time and place. These encounters showed that the strategy operated by the imperial forces could succeed, when the armies were well led and adequate intelligence of enemy movements was available. But the war in the east was largely a struggle between two equal powers, with the imperial side having the advantage of geography and communications to offset the superior numbers on the side of the Caliphate. Only in the 10th century, when the empire went over fully to the offensive, does this picture change. These defensive arrangements were progressively allowed to fall into disuse os the empire went onto the offensive after the middle of the 10th century. And when the empire's situation changed for the worse, as a result of the appearance from the 1040s and afterwards of a host of new enemies, the lack of an effective, deep defensive structure permitted the Seljuk Turks to conquer and permanently occupy central Asia Minor after the battle of Mantzikert in 1071 with virtually no opposition. The empire was never again able to re-establish its power in the region.
（帝国遭受了许多失败，尤其是在早期，但它也见证了一些重大的成功，尤其是在入侵者的阴影下以及帝国军队在正确的时间和地点聚集的地方。这些遭遇表明，帝国军队的战略可以成功，只要军队得到很好的领导并且可以获得足够的敌军动向情报。但东方的战争在很大程度上是两个平等力量之间的斗争，帝国方面具有地理和通讯优势，可以抵消哈里发方面的优势。直到 10 世纪，当帝国全面转入攻势时，这种情况才有所改变。随着帝国在 10 世纪中叶之后发动进攻，这些防御安排逐渐被废弃。当帝国的局势变得更糟时，由于 1040 年代及之后出现了大量新敌人，缺乏有效的、深入的防御结构使得塞尔柱突厥人在此之后征服并永久占领了中小亚细亚。1071 年的曼茨克特之战几乎没有任何反对。 帝国再也无法在该地区重新建立其权力。）
未完待续
