教授单词的学习策略

https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1616525.Teaching_Word_Meanings_Literacy_Teaching_

11 教授单词学习策略。单词部分 157

guptopia n. 水族馆中的虚假装饰，旨在愚弄鱼儿，让它们以为是在水下天堂。

(Hall, 1989, When Sniglets Ruled the Earth, p. 44)

作为一个有策略的读者，一部分是知道如何处理阅读时遇到的不熟悉的词汇。有策略的读者知道如何适当和灵活地利用他们所掌握的资源。可以教学生战略性地处理上下文、词组和定义（Buikema & Graves, 1993；Nagy, Winsor, Osborn, & O'Flahavan, 1993；White等人, 1989）。

我们不应该期望学生的独立单词学习会使他们对单词有完整的认识，但是，在他们自己的情况下，学生通常可以对一个单词有足够的了解，从而掌握文章的要点，并使遇到不熟悉的单词时不会对他们的阅读造成干扰。因此，我们可以把独立的单词策略看作是词汇金字塔的第二层--一种对相当多的单词多学一点的方法。

教师可以做几件事来帮助学生成为更好的单词学习者，包括。

- 示范当你遇到一个陌生的单词时，你会怎么做

- 教导学生使用单词的组成部分、上下文线索和定义

- 在你的理解策略教学中包括处理不熟悉的单词的策略。

好的策略教学还包括明确的解释（如何、何时、为何应用策略）、示范、用真实的材料进行指导性练习，以及逐步将责任转移给学生（Duke & Pearson, 2002）。

学生在独立学习单词时有三个主要的信息来源：单词部分、上下文和定义。正如我们希望在本章和后面的两章中明确指出的那样，每一种都是有价值的信息来源，但每一种也都很难使用，并有可能产生误导。因此，单词学习策略教学应包括有关上下文、单词部分和定义的局限性的信息，并应教会学生整合来自多个来源的信息（例如，单词部分的含义在这个上下文中是否有意义？）

好的策略教学可以帮助学生学习为什么、何时以及如何使用个别策略。因此，旨在使学生成为更好的独立单词学习者的教学也将包括更高层次的策略，指导学生使用单词部分、上下文和字典，使学习者评估。我是否需要知道这个词来理解文本？这个词值得在字典中查找吗？我对这个词的了解是否足以继续下去？

在这一章中，我们谈到了使用单词部分作为学习单词的策略。我们将在第12章和第13章分别讨论上下文和定义。然而，在这三章中，我们希望你记住，使用这三个有关单词的信息来源是一项困难的、往往是智力上的挑战，有时需要仔细的、反思的思考，以及对自己语言的丰富知识基础。因此，教授单词学习策略，就像教授其他理解策略一样，是一个长期（事实上是多年）的命题。

词汇部分的用处

如果你拥有一台电脑，并在任何与语言有关的领域工作，最终会有人给你转发一封关于英语语言荒谬的电子邮件，这可以追溯到Richard Lederer（1989）的《疯狂英语》一书（尽管在互联网上流传的版本中，很少有人承认来源）。在形态学的疯狂之旅中，Lederer发现了一个又一个的案例，在这些案例中，一个词的各个部分并不能引出它的意思--杂货商不是groce，锤子不是ham，手指不是fing；你在公园路上开车，而停在车道上，等等。(一个合法的互联网版本可以在http://pwl.netcom.com/~rlederer/arc_ceng.htm上找到。) 这样的例子太多了，以至于有些人得出结论，单词部分根本不值得人们关注。

情况真的如此糟糕，以至于使词的部分毫无用处吗？Nagy和Anderson(1984)分析了学校印刷材料的语言，发现75%以上的前缀、后缀和复合词的含义可以很容易地从其部分的含义中猜出来。因此，在大多数情况下，词的组成部分是有用的。

然而，这一发现并不是对使用词组的无条件乐观的理由。在四分之一的情况下被词组误导仍然是一个问题。此外，不规则的意思更有可能出现在更频繁的单词中，而许多漂亮的可预测的单词在文本中非常罕见。因此，学生在看到复合词、前缀词或后缀词时，更肯定会有25%以上的时间遇到误导性的词部。

对词组的现实考察再次告诉我们，正如在语言和阅读方面经常发生的那样，简单的非此即彼的方法是行不通的。词组是一种很有价值的资源，不能忽视，但它们又太不稳定，不能盲目地使用。学生需要学会战略性地、谨慎地、深思熟虑地使用词组。

Nation（1990）对使用词组提出了一个非常具体的建议。如果你遇到一个可以分成几个部分的新词，首先要利用上下文来大致了解其含义，然后再看词的部分，看看它们是否能给你带来进一步的帮助。Nation的建议是基于很多经验的，所以应该认真考虑，尽管我们不知道有什么研究可以证明这种具体的方法对单词部分的优越性。然而，很明显的是，至少需要参考一下上下文，看看根据一个词的组成部分所构建的意义对该文本是否有任何意义。

12 教词学习策略。语境 173

所以，当我一次又一次地听到同样的词被恰当地用于不同的短语时，我逐渐掌握了它们所象征的东西。

(Augustine, 386/1943, 1.8.13, p. 11)2 

学生的词汇知识大部分（如果不是大部分）是通过在语境中遇到的单词获得的。孩子们在反复听到这些词或在印刷品中看到这些词时，就会获得关于这些词的含义和使用方法的信息。即使是那些被明确教授的单词，学生对它们的大部分知识最终也来自于在文本中对这些单词的进一步接触。我们认为可以假设，大多数拥有大量阅读词汇的成年人主要是通过阅读--即通过从语境中推断出单词的含义--而不是通过广泛使用字典或广泛的词汇教学来获得这些词汇。

然而，从语境中学习单词是获取词汇的一种 "自然 "手段，这一事实并不一定意味着它非常有效。显然，我们认为语境很重要，足以用一章的篇幅来论述它，并认为帮助学生成为语境信息的更有效使用者是很重要的。然而，首先，我们需要明确的是，作为词义的信息来源，上下文肯定是有问题的。

13 教词学习策略。定义 182

作为纯粹的休闲读物，我仍然认为英语词典是我们语言中最有趣的书。

(阿尔伯特-杰-诺克，1943年，《一个多余人的回忆》，第15页)

这是关于单词学习策略的三章中的第三章--如何帮助学生更有效地利用单词部分、上下文和定义。从某种意义上说，定义无疑是这三者中最可靠的。我们已经花了一些时间来解释词的部分和上下文是如何提供关于词义的部分信息，有时甚至是误导性的信息。另一方面，定义的明确设计是为了尽可能提供关于一个词的含义的最准确和完整的信息。在学校内外，字典通常被认为是关于词义的权威信息来源。

然而，正如我们在前两章所做的那样，我们首先要尽可能清楚地说明定义作为词义信息来源的局限性。词典定义作为学生的工具，至少有三个主要问题。

- 一个词的意思总是在某种程度上取决于它出现的背景。

- 定义并不传达关于一个词如何被使用的信息。

- 儿童很难理解定义中的（通常是错综复杂的）语言。

就像单词部分和上下文的情况一样，我们不认为这些限制是放弃使用字典的理由。然而，对学生来说，使用字典远比人们所认识的要困难得多。词典的使用必须被看作是一种复杂的认知策略，需要多年的发展。在讨论了定义的局限性之后，我们接着给出了一些教学活动的建议，这些活动应有助于学生学会更有效地使用定义。

 使用www.DeepL.com/Translator翻译（免费版）

11 Teaching Word Learning Strategies: Word Parts 157

guptopia n. the phony decor in an aquarium designed to fool fish into thinking they're in an underwater paradise.

(Hall, 1989, When Sniglets Ruled the Earth, p. 44)

Part of being a strategic reader is knowing how to deal with the unfamiliar vocabulary one encounters while reading. Strategic readers know how to make appropriate and flexible use of the resources available to them. Students can be taught to deal strategically with context, word parts, and definitions (Buikema & Graves, 1993; Nagy, Winsor, Osborn, & O'Flahavan, 1993; White et al., 1989).

We should not expect that students' independent word learning will lead them to complete knowledge of words, but, on their own, students can usually learn enough about a word to get the gist of the text and to keep encounters with unfamiliar words from being a disruption to their reading. Hence, we can think of independent word strategies as being on Level II of the vocabulary pyramid—a way to learn a little more about a fairly large number of words.

There are several things that teachers can do to help students become better word learners, including:

• Modeling what you do when you encounter an unfamiliar word

• Teaching about use of word parts, context clues, and definitions

• Including strategies for dealing with unfamiliar words in your comprehension strategy instruction.

Good strategy instruction also includes explicit explanations (how, when, and why to apply strategies), modeling, guided practice with authentic materials, and gradual transfer of responsibility to students (Duke & Pearson, 2002).

There are three main sources of information available for students in independent word learning: word parts, context, and definitions. As we hope to make clear in this chapter and the two that follow, each of these is a valuable source of information, but each can also be difficult to use and potentially misleading. Word learning strategy instruction should therefore include information about the limitations of context, word parts, and definitions, and should teach students to integrate information from multiple sources (e.g., does the meaning of the word parts make sense in this context?).

Good strategy instruction helps students learn why, when, and how to use individual strategies. Therefore, instruction that aims at making students better independent word learners will also include higher-level strategies that guide students' use of word parts, context, and dictionaries, causing learners to evaluate: Do I need to know this word to understand the text? Is this word worth looking up in a dictionary? Do I know enough about this word yet to go on?

In this chapter we talk about using word parts as a word-learning strategy. We go on to context and definitions in chapters 12 and 13, respectively. In all three chapters, however, we want you to keep in mind that using these three sources of information about words is a difficult and often intellectually challenging task that sometimes requires careful, reflective thinking, as well as a rich base of knowledge about one's language. Teaching word learning strategies, like the teaching of other comprehension strategies, is therefore a long-term (in fact, multiyear) proposition.

The Usefulness Of Word Parts

If you own a computer and work in any language-related field, eventually someone forwards you an e-mail about the absurdities of the English language that can be traced by to Richard Lederer's (1989) book Crazy English (although in the versions circulated through the Internet, the source is seldom acknowledged). In a tour de force of morphological madness, Lederer identified case after case in which the parts of a word don't lead to its meaning—grocers don't groce, hammers don't ham, fingers don't fing; you drive on a parkway, and park in the driveway, and so on. (A legitimate Internet version can be found at http://pwl.netcom.com/~rlederer/arc_ceng.htm.) There are so many such examples that some people have concluded that word parts are simply not worth one's attention.

Is the situation really so bad as to make word parts useless? Nagy and Anderson (1984) analyzed the language of printed school materials, and found that a little over 75% of prefixed, suffixed, and compound words had meanings that could be easily figured out from the meanings of their parts. In the majority of cases, then, word parts can be useful.

However, this finding is not grounds for unqualified optimism about the use of word parts. Being mislead byword parts one time out of four can still be a problem. Besides, irregular meanings are more likely to be found in more frequent words, whereas many of the nice predictable words are very rare in text. Thus, students are more certainly going to encounter misleading word parts more than 25% of the time they see a compound, prefixed, or suffixed word.

A realistic look at word parts tells us once more, as is so often the case with language and reading, that simplistic either-or approaches don't work. Word parts are too valuable a resource to ignore, but they are too inconsistent to use blindly. Students need to learn to use word parts strategically, cautiously, and thoughtfully.

Nation (1990) gave a very specific suggestion about using word parts: If you encounter a new word that can be broken into parts, first use the context to get a general idea of the meaning, and only then look to the word parts to see if they can give you further help. Nation's advice was based on much experience, so it should be given serious consideration, although we know of no research that would demonstrate the superiority of this specific approach to word parts. However, it's clear that, at very least, context needs to be consulted to see whether a meaning constructed on the basis of the parts of a word actually makes any sense for that text.

12 Teaching Word Learning Strategies: Context 173

So, as I heard the same words again and again properly used in different phrases, I came gradually to grasp what things they signified.

(Augustine, 386/1943, 1.8.13, p. 11)2 

Much, if not most, of students' vocabulary knowledge is gained through encountering words in context. Children pick up information about what words mean and how the words are used as they repeatedly hear the words or see them in print. Even for those words that are explicitly taught, much of students' knowledge of them ultimately comes from further encounters with those words in text. We think it is safe to assume that most adults with large reading vocabularies acquired them primarily through reading—that is, through inferring the meanings of words from context—rather than through extensive use of dictionaries or extensive vocabulary instruction.

The fact that learning words from context is a "natural" means of vocabulary acquisition, however, does not necessarily mean that it is very efficient. We obviously think that context is important enough to devote a chapter to it, and believe that it is important to help students become more effective users of contextual information. However, to start with, we need to make it clear that as a source of information about word meanings, context is definitely problematic.

13 Teaching Word Learning Strategies: Definitions 182

As sheer casual reading matter, I still find the English dictionary the most interesting book in our language.

(Albert Jay Nock, 1943, Memoirs of a Superfluous Man, p. 15)

This is the third of three chapters about word learning strategies—how to help students make more effective use of word parts, context, and definitions. In one sense, definitions are certainly the most reliable of the three. We have gone to some length to explain how word parts and context supply only partial, and sometimes even misleading, information about the meanings of words. Definitions, on the other hand, are explicitly designed to give the most accurate and complete information possible about the meaning of a word. Both in and out of school, dictionaries are generally regarded as an authoritative source of information about word meanings.

As we have done in the preceding two chapters, however, we want to start by making as clear as possible the limitations of definitions as a source of information about word meanings. There are at least three main problems with dictionary definitions as a tool for students:

• The meaning of a word is always dependent to some extent on the context in which it occurs.

• Definitions do not convey information about how a word is used.

• Children have trouble understanding the (often convoluted) language of definitions.

Just as was the case with word parts and context, we don't see these limitations as reasons to give up the use of dictionaries. However, using dictionaries is far more difficult for students than is commonly recognized. Dictionary use must be seen as a complex cognitive strategy that takes years to develop. After we discuss the limitations of definitions, we go on to give some suggestions for instructional activities that should help students learn to use definitions more effectively.