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句法学-4-2-外应笔记-英专研考

2023-07-17 18:42 作者:冯明杨  | 我要投稿

 

「Syntax句法学」studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. It identifies permissible sequences in a language and the relationship between elements in sentence structure.[戴]

Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding English sentences. The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax. These rules specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements.[胡]

 

【名词解释】要点:1.微观语言学的一个分支2.rule, governing, combination, structure 3.specify permissible sequence.

[记忆卡片]——规则不仅要排列结构,而且要有逻辑、有秩序~该涉及的涉及,可现场推导。

 

外语语言学<背诵为主>,理解要点是为了让背诵变得简单些,总之围绕着背诵~

 

 


4-2

首先,从基础概念说起~

主、谓、宾;

数、性、格;

短语、从句、句子

时态、体、语气

[大都是选填判断]

 

 

[辨证概念]——(a).第三章提到「Part of Speech」包括N, V, A, Adv, Prep, Conj, etc. 通过「词的分类」得到的,同类词在句子有【等效替代】的语法位置。

 

(b).不同的<分类法>会得到不同的<范畴>,但不影响物体本身。

 

(c).而我们知道,N.可用作Subject, 而Det.+Adj.+N或V.ing.也可以做subject.

它们都是【语法概念】,虽说不同级,但不冲突。

     

 

Subject:

(a). 起初认为该位置是【the doer of the action动作的执行者】,而宾语是【the person or thing acted upon by the doer】.

 

(b).然后,

“Jack was bitten by a dog.”

对吧,有被动句,Doer不一定主语。

 

(c).所以新增了概念「Grammatical Subject」和「Logical Subject」.

 

[头脑风暴]——通过(a).(b).(c).三句话,自己推导内容,考场上现推现写。

“upup好难呀~我推不出来”,我说句实话,推不出来只有去背,费劲儿~

我举个例子,要扩充<语言环境影响语言习得>,肯定是<好的语言环境有积极的影响>,举例,狼族小孩的故事,听过吧?!哪有实验的科学的调研,故事你可以编,千万别说我说的。

我再举个例子,<LAD-UG语言习得机制和普遍语法是什么?>,如果你真的理解<客观唯心主义>,理解什么是<上帝创造一切,指引着一切>,相关的话术完全可以推导个八九不离十。

 

[头脑风暴]——a+b+c=语法主语不一定是逻辑主语,and vice versa. 逻辑主语是核心,是the doer, 是动作的发出者。

 

 

(d).还有一种对主语的定义是“What the sentence is about?”, 即topic.

But, 下面的例2例3,对该定义来说,有不小的分歧和冲击:

例1: Bill is a very crafty person.

例2: Jack is pretty reliable, but Bill I don’t trust.

例3: As for Bill, I wouldn’t take his promises very seriously.

 

[横批]——具体问题具体分析!

 

 

 

 

 

Object:

(e).宾语可分为「direct object」和「indirect object」.

 

(f).在一些曲折语言中,object is marked by case labels: the accusative case for direct, and the dative case for indirect object. 即<宾格>指<直接宾语>,<与格>指<间接宾语>

 

(g).在英语中,宾语is recognised by tracing its relation to word order and by inflection.

 

(h).「The Passive Transformation」是个好东西,可以让主宾调换。

 

 

 

 

 

Predicate:超级易错!

(i).通过binary analysis, 除了主语,其它成分统称为「Predicate」, such as verb+object+complement, etc. 至于谓语动词,建议用「Predicator」表示!

 

(j). It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that relate to the subject.

 

 

 

 

 

Number:

(k).广义来说,分为singular, dual, plural三种,主要是noun和pronounce的范畴。但像法语等语言,Adj.也普遍存在单复数。

 

(l). couple, twice, both在英语中其实也不算少,而在Arabic and classical Greek, 普遍存在<dual>.

 

 

 

 

 

Gender:

英语中只有“she”“he”以及少量名词“prince”“princess”有性的差别。

 

我们在此分析法语、拉丁语等语言,

分三类,masculine, feminine, neuter.

&「Natural Gender」与「Grammatical Gender」,自己推导!

&有两性特征除外,在很多情况下,【自然性别】与【语法性别】之间may seem quite arbitrary!

I.e. in Latin, ignis “fire” is masculine, while flamma “flame” is feminie

 

 

 

 

 

Case:

(m).在拉丁语法里,cases are based on variations in the morphological form of the word, 是最重要的语法特征,一般每个名词有<nominative主格> <accusative宾格> <vocative呼格> <genitive属格> <dative与格> and <ablative离格>六种格.

 

(n).古希腊有五种格,梵语有八种,而芬兰语多达十五种。

 

(o). Fillmore认为,格可以分为十三种:施事,感事,工具,受事,源点,终点,方位,时间,行径,承受,受益,伴随和永存。<<不用背,看看就行>>!

 

(p).在英语中,格是名词的一种特殊形式。一般来说,格出现在<介词后面>或<屈折变化>,可以通过词序判断或使用。

 

[题外话]——我感觉,我感觉格多的语言,与格、离格之类的,就类似于英语的of, about; from, away加名词的结合,我猜的。我猜的,貌似格多的语言,其介词系统应该可能不太发达,你们可以研究研究~

 

 

 

 

 

Phrase:

【名词解释】——短语是包括两个或多个词的单一成分结构,它不具备小句特有的主谓结构。传统上,它被看作是结构等级的一部分,位于小句和词之间。因此,短语首先必须是组成一个成分的一组词。其次,短语在语法等级上低于小句。更确切地说,简单小句可以包括短语,但是简单短语不包括小句。

「Phrase」is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject predicate structure typical of clause.

Traditionally, it is seen as part of a structural hierarchy.

Therefore, first, a phrase must be a group of words which form a constituents.

Second, a phrase is lower on the grammatical hierarchy than clauses.

More precisely, simple clause may contain phrases, but phrase do not contain clauses.

 

 

the three tallest girls=NP

has been doing=VP

extremely difficult=AP

to the door=PP

 


(q). Phrase往下划分可以分为specifier, head, complement. 一个phrase可以没specifier, complement, 但必须有head.

 

什么是XP rule? XP就是结构!X代表中心词N,V,A或P。

能画图就画图,

符号表示为:XP→(specifier) X (complement)

 

对应关系,看图,懂的自然懂~


 

关于短语组合成更大的短语,那个叫【phrase structure rule】,以后再说。

 

 

 

 

 

Clause:

(r).小句也可分为限定(finite)小句和非限定(non-finite)小句,后者包括传统的不定式短语(infinitive phrase)、分词短语(participial phrase)和动名词短语(gerundial phrase).


 

【名词解释】——[胡]A constituent with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence, is a「clause」.

[戴]「clause」is a group of words which form a grammatical unit and which contain a subject and a finite verb. A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence and often functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb.

含有主语和限定动词的一组词所构成的语法单位。分句可以构成句子或句子的一部分,其功能相当于名词、形容词或副词。

 

 

 

 

 

Sentence:

(s).复合句是简单句的组成,每个简单句都有主谓,句子之间由连词连接。复合句分为主从复合句和并列复合句。而复杂单句再长,也是一个句子,只有一个主语,一个谓语,只是在定语状语补语上修饰成分多。

 

 

【名词解释】——「Simple Sentence」is a sentence that consist of a simple clause which contains a suject and a predicate, and stands alone as its own sentence.

 

「Coordinate Sentence」is a sentence that consists of two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”.

 

「Complex Sentence」is a sentence that consists of more than one clause, one of which can be incorporated into the other.

 


 

主系表SVC型

主谓状SVA型

主谓SV型

主谓宾SVO型

主谓宾补SVOC型

主谓宾状SVOA型

主谓双宾SVOO型


 

 


 

Tense:

【名词解释】「Tense」is an inflectional category whose basic role is to indicate the time of an event, etc. in relation to the moment of speaking.

 

英语有十六种时态。

[术语]——present, past, futher, progressive, perfect.

 

 

 

 

 

Aspect:

【名词解释】——「Aspect」is a general term for verbal category that distinguishes the status of events, etc. in relation to specific periods of time, as opposed to their simple location in the present, past or future.

 

 

(t).体与时态的区别在于——时态is deictic(指示性的), 也就是指明事件时间和说话时的时间(the time of utterance)之间的关系。But体is relative to the time of another event described or implied, in the narrative.

 


如果只有事物之间的前后关系,即只知道哪件事情发生在前,哪件事情发生在后,哪件事情发生时同时发生,就是体。

如果加了说话的时间,即明确了过去或现在,那就是时态。

 

[辨证概念]——在英语等西方语言中,aspect大家没怎么接触过,因为它们均存在时态的屈折形态,明晰时态。

但,像汉语,“考前的那一周没准备玩游戏”“我没打游戏,但我见他在偷玩”,表达时可以完全不知道时态,不知道那件事情发生了还是没发生,而只知道体。

 

 

 

 

 

Mood

(u). Mood is a grammatical category distinguishing modality.

 

(v). Modality is a category covering indication either of a kind of speech act or the degree of certainty with which something is said.

 

Mood=语气

Modality=情态

 

 

 



补充「category」,这个词是【专业术语】,不要同义替换。也是去解释该章节旗下的基础概念时,要涉及到的一个词。这个概念可能很抽象,可能就压根只是错误的表达~因为存在歧义,且说不清道不明!

 

它是一种<分类法>,分出来同层次但不同赛道的概念——

词汇分为N, Adj, V, Conj, Prep.;又可以分为主要词汇范畴和次要词汇范畴。

短语的范畴可以PP、AP、VP、NP;也可以按照某种方法分为中心语、标志语和补语。

时态、体和语气是动词的语法范畴。

 

 

 

 

给了俩版本,能理解理解,理解不了算了。

 

[胡]The term Category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in itself narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, noun, subject, noun phrase…<大杂烩>

More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, mood, etc.

[戴]「Grammatical Category」refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.

 

 


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