【简译】葡萄牙对佛得角的殖民统治
The Portuguese colonization of the Cape Verde (Cabo Verde) Islands began from 1462. Initially envisaged as a base to give mariners direct access to West African trade, the Central Atlantic islands soon became a major hub of the Atlantic slave trade. Slaves were used on the sugar plantations of the islands and sold on to ships sailing to the Americas.
葡萄牙对佛得角群岛的殖民始于1462年。最初的目的是将其作为一个基地，使航海者能够直接进入西非贸易，但大西洋中部群岛很快成为大西洋奴隶贸易的主要枢纽。岛上的蔗糖种植园使用奴隶，并将奴隶卖给驶往美洲的船只。
Unlike the other Atlantic islands under Portuguese control, the Cape Verde group was subject to arid winds and irregular rainfall, which made life there precarious. Given trading concessions for the African coast, Cape Verdeans did manage to make their agriculture sustainable, and their cotton textiles, in particular, were in great demand on the mainland. Cape Verde was strategically important as a base for resupply for ships sailing to and from Portuguese territories in the East Indies and Brazil. The islands sent African slaves across the Atlantic and used them to such a degree in the Cape Verde archipelago that eventually the population became racially mixed with few cultural ties to Europe by the 17th century. The islands gained independence from Portugal in 1975.
与葡萄牙控制下的其他大西洋岛屿不同，佛得角群岛受干旱风和不规则降雨的影响，生活环境不稳定。由于获得了非洲海岸的贸易特许权，佛得角人设法使他们的农业变得可持续发展，特别是其棉纺织品在非洲大陆上需求量很大。佛得角作为往返葡萄牙东印度群岛和巴西领土船只的补给基地，具有重要的战略意义。这些岛屿将非洲奴隶送往大西洋彼岸，并在佛得角群岛大量使用这些奴隶，以至于到17世纪时，佛得角人种混杂，与欧洲几乎没有文化联系。1975年，佛得角群岛脱离葡萄牙获得独立。
地理及气候
Located some 500 kilometres (310 mi) off the coast of West Africa (Mauritania and Senegal), the Cape Verde Island group is named after the westernmost cape of the African continent. There are nine inhabited islands today, the capital being Praia on Santiago (São Tiago). The most important port is Mindelo on São Vicente. The other islands are Boa Vista, Brava, Fogo, Maio, Santo Antão, São Nicolau, and Sal. Santa Luzia is an uninhabited island, and there are several islets.
佛得角群岛距离西非海岸（毛里塔尼亚和塞内加尔）约500公里，因非洲大陆最西端的海角而得名。目前有九个有人居住的岛屿，首府是圣地亚哥（São Tiago）岛的普拉亚。最重要的港口是圣维森特岛上的明德卢。其他岛屿是博阿维斯塔岛、布拉瓦岛、福古岛、马约岛、圣安唐岛、圣尼古劳岛和萨尔岛。圣卢西亚岛（Santa Luzia）是一个无人居住的岛屿，岛上还有一些沚。
The islands are varied in topography, with some being relatively flat and others mountainous. Pico is an active volcano on Fogo and the highest point in the group at 2,829 metres (9,281 ft). The islands are divided into two groups: the Windward (Barlavento) and Leeward (Sotavento), names which indicate the strong winds which can blow in from across the Atlantic.
这些岛屿地形各异，有些相对平坦，有些则多山。皮科（Pico do Fogo 在德语中被称为“Berg des Feuers”，或简称为 Feuerberg）是福古岛上的一座活火山，也是群岛的最高点，海拔2829米（9281英尺）。群岛分为两组：迎风群岛（Barlavento）和背风群岛（Sotavento）。这些名称表明，强风可能从大西洋彼岸吹来。
The islands are not blessed with abundant water sources and rainfall is irregular, although often torrential when it does come. The soil is shallow but rich thanks to the volcanic origins of the islands. The climate is usually moderate, but the arid winds meant wheat, vines, and olives could not be grown as on other Portuguese territories. There were few meat sources on the island, the only indigenous mammal being bats. One source of meat was the sea turtles which nest on some of the islets.
这些岛屿没有丰富的水源，降雨也不规律，但降雨时往往暴雨如注。由于岛屿的火山起源，这里的土壤浅薄但肥沃。气候通常温和，但干旱的风意味着无法像葡萄牙其他领土那样种植小麦、葡萄和橄榄。岛上的肉类来源很少，唯一的本土哺乳动物是蝙蝠。肉类的一个来源是在一些小岛上筑巢的海龟。
探 索
It is likely that Cape Verde was known to ancient mariners such as the Phoenicians, and to Islamic sailors and Africans. However, it was not until the 15th century that anyone took a serious interest in populating the islands. Two Genoese mariners, sailing under the flag of Portugal, discovered the archipelago in 1460. Their names were Antonio and Bartolomeo da Noli.
佛得角很可能为腓尼基人等古代航海家以及伊斯兰和非洲水手所熟知。然而，直到 15世纪，才有人对该群岛的居民产生了浓厚的兴趣。1460年，两名悬挂葡萄牙国旗的热那亚水手发现了该群岛。他们分别是安东尼奥·达·诺利 (Antonio da Noli) 和巴尔托洛梅奥·达诺利 (Bartolomeo da Noli)。
The Portuguese Crown was keen to gain direct access to the gold of West Africa and the Cape Verde islands provided a handy means by which they could sail down the coast and avoid the Islamic states in North Africa who were themselves intent on monopolising African trade. The first major obstacle was a geographical one: how to sail around Cape Bojador and be able to make it back to Europe against the prevailing north winds? The answers were better ship design - caravels using lateen sails - and a bold course setting out away from the African coastline and using winds, currents, and high-pressure areas to sail back home.
葡萄牙王室渴望直接获取西非黄金，而佛得角群岛则为他们提供了一个便捷的途径，他们可以沿海岸线航行，避开北非的伊斯兰国家，因为这些国家本身就想垄断非洲贸易。第一个主要障碍是地理问题：如何绕过波哈多角，顶着盛行的北风返回欧洲？答案是更好的船只设计（带有大帆的轻快帆船）和大胆的航向，远离非洲海岸，利用风、洋流和高压区返回家园。
Prince Henry the Navigator (aka Infante Dom Henrique, 1394-1460) had sponsored expeditions of discovery that led to the Portuguese colonization of Madeira (1420) and the Azores (1439). These islands proved useful stepping stones for mariners intent on expeditions of discovery further south. In 1462, it was the turn of Cape Verde to be added to Portugal’s maritime and agricultural assets.
航海家亨利王子（又名Infante Dom Henrique，1394-1460年）曾资助过葡萄牙人的探险活动，这些探险活动促使了葡萄牙人在马德拉岛（1420年）和亚速尔群岛（1439年）建立了殖民地。事实证明，这些岛屿是水手们向南探险的跳板。1462年，佛得角成为葡萄牙海洋和农业资产的一部分。
In 1462 Portuguese settlers arrived on Santiago and founded Ribeira Grande, which would be the capital for the next 250 years. Initially, the islands were granted to Prince Fernando, nephew and heir of Prince Henry, but in 1495, they returned to the full control of the monarch, then King Manuel I of Portugal (r. 1495-1521).
1462年，葡萄牙定居者抵达圣地亚哥岛，并建立了大里贝拉（Ribeira Grande），并成为此地未来250年的首都。起初，这些岛屿被授予亨利王子的侄子和继承人斐迪南亲王，但在 1495年，它们又回到了君主的完全控制之下，即当时的葡萄牙国王曼努埃尔一世（1495-1521年）。
While West Africa was, for the moment, Portugal’s to monopolize, there were some squabbles with Spain over the Atlantic islands, particularly over who should have possession of the Canary and Cape Verde Islands. The 1479-80 Treaty of Alcáçovas-Toledo set out that the Canaries were Spain’s domain while Portugal controlled the Cape Verdes, Azores, and Madeiras. There were also some additional vague clauses to the treaty that would cause trouble later such as Portugal’s right to future discoveries in Africa and Spain’s to islands beyond the Canaries, interests which were eventually identified as the Caribbean and even the Americas.
尽管葡萄牙暂时垄断了西非，但葡萄牙与西班牙在大西洋岛屿问题上，尤其是在加那利群岛和佛得角群岛归谁所有的问题上发生了一些争执。1479-80 年签订的《阿尔卡索瓦什和约》（也称为《阿尔卡索瓦什-托雷多和约》，Alcaocvas）规定，加那利群岛归西班牙所有，而葡萄牙则控制佛得角、亚速尔群岛和马德拉群岛。此外，条约中还有一些含糊不清的条款，这些条款后来引起诸多问题，如葡萄牙未来在非洲的探索发现权和西班牙在加那利群岛以外岛屿的探索发现权，这些利益最终延伸到加勒比海甚至美洲。
殖 民 化
As with the Portuguese colonization of the Azores and Madeira, the Crown partitioned the islands and gave out 'captaincies' (donatarias) as part of the system of feudalism to encourage nobles to fund their development. The first 'captain' of Santiago was Antonio da Noli. Each 'captain' or donatario was given the responsibility of settling and developing their area in return for financial and judicial privileges, Accordingly, 'captains', in turn, distributed parts of their estates to their followers for development, parcels of land known as semarias. Men given such land had the responsibility of clearing it and beginning cultivation within a set period. The captaincies became hereditary offices in many cases. The model of donatarias would be applied to other Portuguese colonial territories in the future, notably in Brazil.
正如葡萄牙对亚速尔群岛和马德拉群岛的殖民统治一样，国王分割了这些岛屿，并授予“captaincies”（donatarias），作为封建制度的一部分，以鼓励贵族为其发展提供资金。圣地亚哥的第一任“captain”是安东尼奥·达·诺利（Antonio da Noli）。每个“captain”或“donatarias”都被赋予定居和开发其所在地区的责任，以换取财政和司法特权。因此，“captain”反过来将其庄园的一部分分配给其追随者进行开发，这些地块被称为 semarias。获得这些土地的人有责任在规定期限内开垦这些土地并开始耕种。在许多情况下，“captain”成为世袭职位。“donatarias”模式后来也应用于葡萄牙的其他殖民地，特别是巴西。
Settlers were a mix of mostly Portuguese (particularly from the Azores and the Algarve region of Portugal), some Jewish migrants seeking religious freedom, undesirables from Portugal such as deportees, and a number of Italians and French. Later, English and African settlers came, too.
此地定居者主要是葡萄牙人（尤其是来自亚速尔群岛和葡萄牙阿尔加维地区的葡萄牙人）、一些寻求宗教自由的犹太移民、葡萄牙的不受欢迎者（如被驱逐出境者）以及一些意大利人和法国人。后来，英国人和非洲移民也来到了这里。
As with the Portuguese colonization of Madeira and the Azores, sugar cane was planted with high hopes. However, the aridity of the islands limited yields. Droughts and famine were not infrequent due to the highly irregular rainfall. Settlers introduced such animals as goats and cattle, and forests were cut down to make way for agriculture, much to the detriment of the soil in the long term. Besides sugar, products of the Cape Verde islands included a red dye from the lichen orchil, salt deposits (on Maio, Sal, and Boa Vista), grains and roots of African origin, maize introduced from the Americas, manioc, and sweet potatoes. Horses were reared on Santiago in the 15th century which were then shipped to the African coast. The cotton textiles produced on the islands were in great demand on the mainland coast and were designed specifically for that market using traditional African patterns. There was, too, a specific Cape Verdean design - six stripes of white, black, and blue - and cloth strips of this design were even used as a form of currency on the islands.
与葡萄牙殖民马德拉群岛和亚速尔群岛时一样，葡萄牙人对甘蔗的种植寄予厚望。然而，群岛的干旱限制了甘蔗的产量。由于降雨极不规律，干旱和饥荒时有发生。定居者引进了山羊和牛等动物，并砍伐森林为农业让路，从长远来看，这对土壤非常不利。除蔗糖外，佛得角群岛的特产还包括从地衣中提取的红色染料、盐矿（在马约、萨尔和博阿维斯塔）、原产于非洲的谷物和根茎作物、从美洲引进的玉米、木薯和红薯。15世纪在圣地亚哥饲养的马匹被运往非洲海岸。岛上生产的棉纺织品在非洲大陆海岸需求量很大，这些纺织品是专门为非洲市场设计的，采用了传统的非洲图案。还有一种特定的佛得角设计（六种白色、黑色和蓝色条纹），带有这种设计的布料甚至被用作岛上的货币。
The Portuguese Crown had granted Cape Verdeans the right to trade with the African coastal communities in 1466, and they were given tax exemptions. There were some conditions such as only residents who had been on the islands for four years could trade and they could only do so with goods from the Cape Verde islands. These favours were likely granted because the agriculture on the island was not dependable. The arrangement meant that Portuguese trade settlements were established on the continent, which could take advantage of the well-organised African trade that saw goods travel from the interior along the major rivers (e.g. Gambia and Senegal) to the coast. Goods acquired included gold, slaves, ivory, pepper, beeswax, gum, and dyewoods. At this stage, the Portuguese made no attempt at conquest since they lacked the manpower and it was, in any case, unnecessary since the existing trade networks were so well-established and organised. Sometimes fortifications were built to protect trade centres, but these were always constructed with permission from the local chiefs. The good trade relations between the islands and coast brought other advantages such as the possibility to lease land for cultivation when there were poor harvests on the islands and for the Cape Verdeans to offer refuge to exiles during tribal warfare on the mainland.
1466年，葡萄牙王室授予佛得角人与非洲沿海社区进行贸易的权利，并给予他们免税待遇。但也有一些条件，比如只有在岛上居住满四年的居民才可以进行贸易，并且只能与来自佛得角群岛的货物进行贸易。之所以给予这些优惠，可能是因为岛上的农业并不可靠。这种安排意味着葡萄牙人在非洲大陆建立了贸易定居点，可以利用组织良好的非洲贸易，将货物从内陆沿主要河流（如冈比亚和塞内加尔）运往海岸。葡萄牙人获得的商品包括黄金、奴隶、象牙、胡椒、蜂蜡、树胶和染料。在这一阶段，葡萄牙人没有试图进行征服，因为他们缺乏人力，而且现有的贸易网络已经非常完善，因此无论如何都没有必要进行武力征服。葡萄牙人有时会修建防御工事来保护贸易中心，但这些工事都是在征得当地酋长同意后修建的。岛屿和海岸之间良好的贸易关系还带来了其他好处，比如在岛屿歉收时可以租地耕种，佛得角人还可以在大陆部落战争期间为流亡者提供避难所。
The islands continued to be of strategic value to mariners. Vasco da Gama’s historic voyage around the Cape of Good Hope to India in 1497-8 stopped off at the islands. Ferdinand Magellan’s epic expedition also called in for resupply at the Cape Verde Islands during the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1519-22.
这些岛屿对航海家一直具有战略价值。1497-8年，瓦斯科·达·伽马（Vasco da Gama）绕过好望角前往印度的历史性航行曾在这些岛屿停留。1519-22年，费迪南德·麦哲伦史诗般的探险也曾在佛得角群岛停靠补给。
奴 隶 制
The islands really gained wider prominence when the slave trade to the Americas took off. Cape Verde was ideally located to ship slaves from the African continent and then put them aboard the slave ships that crossed the Atlantic to be used as labour in plantations in the Caribbean, North America, and Brazil. On the return journey, these ships brought back trade goods which were then marketed through Cape Verde and on to Africa and Europe.
佛得角群岛在美洲奴隶贸易兴起时才真正受到广泛关注。佛得角地理位置优越，可以从非洲大陆运送奴隶，然后将他们送上横渡大西洋的贩奴船，在加勒比海、北美和巴西的种植园中充当劳动力。回程时，这些船只带回贸易商品，然后通过佛得角销往非洲和欧洲。
Slaves also worked on the sugar and cotton plantations on the Cape Verde Islands and in the industry producing indigo die. All three products were exported, along with island-made fabrics, to the African mainland and exchanged for slaves, which were then shipped to the Americas. Slaves were given a number of basic lessons in Portuguese and Christianity, both of which made them more valuable if they ever made it to the Americas. These lessons also eased traders’ consciences that they were somehow benefitting the slaves and giving them the opportunity of what they considered eternal salvation. Around 3,000 slaves a year took the terrible and often deadly voyage across the Atlantic. Many free Cape Vedereans went, too, attracted by the possibilities of Portugal’s new presence in Brazil.
奴隶还在佛得角群岛的蔗糖和棉花种植园以及靛蓝模具生产行业工作。这三种产品与岛上生产的织物一起出口到非洲大陆，换取奴隶，然后运往美洲。奴隶们要学习葡萄牙语和基督教的一些基本课程，这两门课程使他们在到达美洲后更有价值。这些课程还能减轻商人的良心负担，让他们觉得自己在某种程度上是在造福奴隶，让他们有机会获得他们认为是永恒的救赎。每年大约有3000名奴隶踏上可怕的、往往是致命的大西洋航程。许多自由的佛得角人也离开了，他们被葡萄牙在巴西的殖民地所吸引。
The Florentine merchant and slaver Francesco Carletti visited the Cape Verde Islands in 1594. He gives the following vivid description of the slave trade on Santiago:
…we bought seventy-five slaves, two-thirds men and one-third women, both young and old, large and small. All were mixed together according to the custom of the country in a flock, just as in our country we would buy sheep, having first taken all the necessary precautions to make sure that they were in good health, had good constitutions and had no bodily defects. Each owner then marks them, or to say it more appropriately, brands them with his own brand mark. This is made of silver and is heated in the flame of a candle made of tallow with which the burn is anointed. The mark is made on the breast, or the arm or the back so that they be recognised.
…The slaves were embarked in the ship we had hired, the men below decks pressed and squeezed together one against the other in such a way that they had great difficulty in turning from one side to the other when they wanted to. The women were lodged after their own fashion on deck wherever they could find room in the ship. (Newitt, 156-8)
佛罗伦萨商人兼奴隶贩子弗朗西斯科·卡莱蒂于1594年访问了佛得角群岛。他对圣地亚哥的奴隶贸易作了如下生动的描述：
......我们买了75个奴隶，三分之二是男人，三分之一是女人，有老有少，有大有小。按照该国的习俗，它们全部混合在一起，形成一个群体，就像在我们国家购买羊一样，首先要采取一切必要的预防措施，确保他们身体健康、体质良好、没有身体缺陷。接下来，每个主人都会给它们打上标记，或者更恰当地说，给它们打上自己的烙印。烙印是用银制成的，在用牛油制成的蜡烛火焰中加热，然后在烙印上涂上油膏。标记打在胸前、手臂上或背上，以便识别。
......奴隶们被安置在我们租用的船上，甲板下的男人们一个挨着一个挤在一起，想从一边转到另一边都非常困难。女人们则按照自己的方式住在甲板上，只要船上有地方，她们就住在那里。(Newitt, 156-8)
As Cape Verde was much further from Portugal than the other Atlantic colonies (about two weeks sailing), so the islands attracted fewer European settlers, especially women. As a consequence, Europeans and Africans intermarried on the islands, creating an Afro-Portuguese culture which had a strong African religious and artistic influence. It was very often these free mixed-race Cape Verdeans who settled in the trading posts on the coast of Africa.
由于佛得角距离葡萄牙比其他大西洋殖民地远得多（大约两周的航程），因此这些岛屿吸引的欧洲定居者较少，其中大多数是女性。结果，欧洲人和非洲人在这些岛屿上混居，创造了一种对非洲宗教和艺术具有强烈影响的非裔葡萄牙文化。这些自由的佛得角混血儿在非洲海岸的贸易站定居下来。
Another cultural influence was from the Portuguese ships sailing from the East which stopped off at the islands on their way back to Europe. As the major junction between the Portuguese African, American, and Indian empires, the Cape Verdes were certainly a cultural melting pot. In addition, the number of resident slaves steadily increased to eventually greatly outnumber the free settlers. By 1582, the populations of Fogo and Santiago, still the two main islands, were made up of 1,600 whites and mixed-race mulattoes, 400 free blacks, and 13,700 slaves.
另一种文化影响来自从东方航行并在返回欧洲途中停靠这些岛屿的葡萄牙船只。作为葡萄牙非洲帝国、美洲帝国和印第安帝国的主要交汇点，佛得角无疑是一个文化大熔炉。此外，常住奴隶的数量不断增加，最终大大超过了自由定居者的数量。到1582年，福古岛和圣地亚哥岛（仍是两个主要岛屿）的人口由1600名白人和混血黑白混血儿、400名自由黑人和13700名奴隶组成。
The wealth going through the islands and their strategic value inevitably attracted unwanted attention from other European powers, notably England and Spain, but also pirates of various nationalities. Pirates attacked the archipelago in 1541, and the English came in 1585 and 1592. The first English raid was led by Francis Drake (c. 1540-1596 CE) and resulted in the sacking of several settlements on Santiago. These latter raids had developed since Philip II of Spain (r. 1556-1598) had taken over Portugal in 1580 and so the Cape Verde Islands were seen as a legitimate target by Spain’s enemies. In 1598, a Dutch fleet attacked the islands as the international competition around West Africa became ever more intense. Trade routes also moved to the direct passage between Europe and West Africa so that the islands went into decline. A series of droughts throughout the 16th century further impoverished the islands. In 1712, the French pirate Jacques Cassard attacked the islands with the consequence that Praia became the capital in a gradual process not fully completed until 1770.
群岛上流淌的财富及其战略价值不可避免地吸引了其他欧洲列强的关注，尤其是英国和西班牙，同时也吸引了不同国籍的海盗。1541年，海盗袭击了群岛，1585年和 1592年，英国人也来了。英国人的第一次袭击由弗朗西斯·德雷克（Francis Drake，1540-1596年）率领，洗劫了圣地亚哥的几个定居点。西班牙腓力二世（公元 1556-1598年）于 1580 年接管葡萄牙后（1580年，腓力二世派遣阿尔瓦公爵率军强行合并葡萄牙），佛得角群岛被西班牙的敌人视为合法的袭击目标。1598年，随着围绕西非的国际竞争日趋激烈，一支荷兰舰队袭击了佛得角群岛。贸易路线也转向欧洲和西非之间的直接通道，因此佛得角群岛逐渐衰落。整个16世纪的一系列干旱使群岛更加贫困。1712年，法国海盗雅克·卡萨尔（Jacques Cassard）袭击了群岛，后来普拉亚逐渐成为该地首都，直到1770年才完全建成。
后来的历史
As the fortunes of the islands declined, many Cape Verdeans migrated to the Portuguese islands of São Tomé and Principe or to North America where the whaling industry offered employment. This was especially so with the end of the slave trade in 1876. The islands have always been strategically important and now they became useful as a refuelling base for steamships heading across the Atlantic and down the coast of Africa, even if the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 meant that east-bound ships no longer had to go around the Cape of Good Hope. An important coaling station was developed for passing ships at Mindelo on São Vicente.
随着佛得角群岛的衰落，许多佛得角人移民到葡萄牙的圣多美和普林西比群岛或北美，因为那里的捕鲸业提供了就业机会。随着1876年奴隶贸易的结束，这种情况变得更加频繁。尽管1869年苏伊士运河的开通意味着向东航行的船只不必再绕道好望角，但这些岛屿一直以来都具有重要的战略意义，它们成为横跨大西洋和非洲海岸的蒸汽轮船的加油基地。在圣维森特岛的明德卢（Mindelo），建有一个重要的过境船舶补给站。
The various national groups on the islands intermarried early on in the island’s history and so the majority of today’s islanders are of mixed European and African descent, known as mestiço or Crioulo, which is also the name of the language spoken (with Portuguese still dominating in more formal contexts). Roman Catholicism remains the dominant religion, and the Iberian Peninsula still dominates imports and exports. Cape Verde gained independence from Portugal in 1975 in a less tumultuous handover than was seen in Portuguese colonies on the African continent. The islands then became the Republic of Cabo Verde. Cidade Velha (formerly Ribeira Grande) on Santiago is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site for its rich colonial architecture.
岛上的各民族在历史上很早就通婚了，因此今天岛上的大多数人都是欧洲和非洲混血儿，被称为“mestiço”或“Crioulo”，这也是岛上使用语言的名称（在更正式的场合，葡萄牙语仍占主导地位）。罗马天主教仍是主要宗教，伊比利亚半岛仍主导着进出口贸易。1975年，佛得角于 1975 年从葡萄牙手中获得独立，其移交过程比葡萄牙在非洲大陆的殖民地要温和一些。佛得角群岛随后成为佛得角共和国。圣地亚哥的 Cidade Velha（原名 Ribeira Grande）因其丰富的殖民时期建筑而被联合国教科文组织列为世界遗产。
参考书目：
Bergreen, Laurence. Over the Edge of the World Updated Edition. William Morrow Paperbacks, 2019.
Disney, A. R. A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Disney, A. R. A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Ki-Zerbo, Joseph & Niane, DjiBril Tamsir. UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition. University of California Press, 1998.
Newitt, Malyn. The Portuguese in West Africa, 1415–1670. Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Ogot, B. A. UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. V, Abridged Edition. University of California Press, 1999.
Oliver, R. A. Cambridge Encyclopedia of Africa . Cambridge University Press, 1981.
Oliver, Roland. The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press, 1977.
Russell-Wood, A. J.R. The Portuguese Empire, 1415-1808. JHUP, 1998.
原文作者：Mark Cartwright
驻意大利的历史作家。他的主要兴趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神话和发现所有文明的共同思想。他拥有政治哲学硕士学位，是《世界历史百科全书》的出版总监。
原文网址：https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/es/2-1762/la-colonizacion-portuguesa-de-cabo-verde/
