【简译】马里帝国（Mali Empire）

The Mali Empire (1240-1645) of West Africa was founded by Sundiata Keita (r. 1230-1255) following his victory over the kingdom of Sosso (c. 1180-1235). Sundiata's centralised government, diplomacy and well-trained army permitted a massive military expansion which would pave the way for a flourishing of the Mali Empire, making it the largest yet seen in Africa.

          西非的马里帝国（1240-1645）是由松迪亚塔·凯塔（1230-1255年）在战胜索索王国（约1180-1235年）后建立的。松迪亚塔的中央集权政府、外交和训练有素的军队推动了大规模的军事扩张，这为马里帝国的繁荣铺平道路，使其成为非洲迄今为止最大的帝国。

The reign of Mansa Musa I (1312-1337) saw the empire reach new heights in terms of territory controlled, cultural florescence, and the staggering wealth brought through Mali's control of regional trade routes. Acting as a middle-trader between North Africa via the Sahara Desert and the Niger River to the south, Mali exploited the traffic in gold, salt, copper, ivory, and slaves that crisscrossed West Africa. Muslim merchants were attracted to all this commercial activity, and they converted Mali rulers who in turn spread Islam via such noted centres of learning as Timbuktu. In contrast to cities like Niani (the capital), Djenne, and Gao, most of the rural Mali population remained farmers who clung to their traditional animist beliefs. The Mali Empire collapsed in the 1460s following civil wars, the opening up of trade routes elsewhere, and the rise of the neighbouring Songhai Empire, but it did continue to control a small part of the western empire into the 17th century.

         曼萨·穆萨一世（Mansa Musa I，1312-1337）在位期间，帝国在控制的领土、文化繁荣以及对区域贸易路线的控制而带来的惊人财富方面达到了新的高度。作为通过撒哈拉沙漠的北非和南边的尼日尔河之间的中间贸易商，马里利用了在西非纵横交错的黄金、盐、铜、象牙和奴隶的贸易资源。穆斯林商人被这些商业活动所吸引，他们改变了马里统治者的信仰，而统治者又通过廷巴克图等著名城市传播伊斯兰教。与尼亚尼（首都）、杰内和加奥等城市相比，马里的大多数农村人口仍然是坚持传统泛灵论（万物有灵论）信仰。15世纪60年代，随着内战、其他贸易路线的开辟以及邻国桑海帝国的崛起，马里帝国崩溃了，但它确实继续控制着西部帝国的一小部分，直到17世纪。

西非及苏丹地区

The Sudan region of West Africa where the Mali Empire would develop had been inhabited since the Neolithic period as evidenced by Iron Age tumuli, megaliths, and remains of abandoned villages. The Niger River regularly flooded parts of this dry grassland and savannah, which provided fertile land for agriculture beginning at least 3,500 years ago, an endeavour greatly helped by the region's adequate annual rainfall. Cereals such as red-skinned African rice and millet were grown with success, as were pulses, tuber and root crops, oil and fibre plants, and fruits. Fishing and cattle herding were other important sources of food, while local deposits of copper were exploited and used for trade. Similarly, gold was probably locally mined or panned and then traded, but concrete evidence from this period is lacking.

          马里帝国后来发展的西非苏丹地区，自新石器时代起就有人居住，铁器时代的古墓、巨石和废弃的村庄遗迹就是证明。尼日尔河周期性地淹没这片干旱草原和稀树草原，至少在3500年前就为农业提供了肥沃的土地，在很大程度上得益于该地区充足的年降雨量。谷物如红皮非洲大米和小米的种植取得了成功，豆类、块茎和根茎作物、油料和纤维植物以及水果也是如此。渔业和牲畜是其他重要的食物来源，而当地的铜矿被开采并用于贸易。同样，黄金也可能在当地被开采或淘洗，然后进行交易，但没有这一时期的具体证据。

The Ghana Empire (6th to 13th century) was the first major political power in West Africa to create an empire based on military might and the wealth gained from regional trade. Not geographically connected to modern-day Ghana but located to the northwest, the empire was in serious decline by the end of the 12th century. Beset by civil wars, rebellions of subjugated chiefdoms, and poor harvests, the empire began to disintegrate with a large part of its territory taken over by the kingdom of Sosso (aka Susu). When the Sosso king Sumanguru (aka Sumaoro Kante, r. from c. 1200), imposed trade restrictions on the Mali region, the native Malinke (Mandingo) tribe rose in rebellion.

          加纳帝国（6至13世纪）是西非第一个建立基于军事实力和区域贸易财富的政治大国。该帝国在地理上与现代加纳没有联系，但位于西北部，到12世纪末已严重衰落。受内战、被征服的酋长王国的叛乱和歉收的困扰，帝国开始瓦解，其大部分领土被索索王国（又名苏苏）接管。当索索国王苏曼古鲁（Sumanguru）（又名苏曼古鲁·坎特，约1200年起）对马里地区实施贸易限制时，当地的马林克（Mandingo，曼丁哥人）部落起来反抗。

松迪亚塔政权

Sundiata Keita (aka Sunjaata or Sundjata, r. 1230-1255) was a Malinke prince, whose name means 'lion prince', and he waged war against the kingdom of Sosso from the 1230s. Sundiata formed a powerful alliance of other disgruntled chiefs tired of Sumanguru's harsh rule and defeated the Sosso in a decisive battle at Krina (aka Kirina) in 1235. In 1240 Sundiata captured the old Ghana capital. Forming a centralised government of tribal leaders and a number of influential Arab merchants, this assembly (gbara) declared Sundiata the supreme monarch and gave him such honorary titles as Mari Diata (Lord Lion). The name Sundiata gave to his empire, Africa's largest up to that point, was Mali, meaning 'the place where the king lives'. It was also decreed that all future kings would be selected from the Keita clan, although the title was not necessarily given to the eldest son of a ruler, which sometimes led to fierce disputes among candidates.

          松迪亚塔·凯塔（又名Sunjaata或Sundjata，1230-1255年）是一位曼丁哥王子，其名字的意思是“狮子王子”，他从13世纪30年代开始对索索王国发动了战争。松迪亚塔与其他厌倦了苏曼古鲁严酷统治的、充斥着不满情绪的酋长们组成了一个强大的联盟，并于1235年在克里纳（又名基里纳）的一场决定性战役中打败了索索人。1240年，松迪亚塔占领了加纳的旧首都。这个由部落首领和一些有影响力的阿拉伯商人组成的中央集权政府（gbara）宣布松迪亚塔为最高君主，并授予他Mari Diata（狮子王）等荣誉称号。松迪亚塔给他的帝国——迄今为止非洲最大的帝国——起名为马里，意思是“国王居住的地方”。他还颁布法令，所有未来的国王都要从凯塔氏族中挑选，尽管这个头衔不一定授予统治者的长子，这有时会导致候选人之间的激烈争执。

The Mansa, or king, would be assisted by an assembly of elders and local chiefs throughout the Mali Empire's history, with audiences held in the royal palace or under a large tree. The king was also the supreme source of justice, but he did make use of legal advisors. In addition, the king was helped by a number of key ministers such as the chief of the army and master of the granaries (later treasury), as well as other officials like the master of ceremonies and leader of the royal orchestra. Nevertheless, the Mansa acted as a supreme monarch and monopolised key trade goods, for example, only he was permitted to possess gold nuggets, traders had to make do with gold dust. The king had certain mystical qualities attributed to him, and all slaves were exclusively loyal to him. No person had the right to be in the king's presence when he ate, for example, and all visitors before him had to be barefoot and bow down and pour dust over their heads. Such was this cult of leadership and the extreme centralisation of government in a single figure that the fortunes of the empire rose and fell depending on the talents or lack of them possessed by a particular king.

          在整个马里帝国的历史中，曼萨，或国王，会得到长老和地方酋长大会的协助，听证会在王宫或大树下举行。国王也是司法的最高来源，但他确实利用了法律顾问。此外，国王还会得到一些重要大臣的帮助，如军队首领和粮仓总管（后来的财政部），以及其他官员，如司仪和皇家乐团的领导。然而，曼萨作为至高无上的君主，他垄断了关键的贸易商品，例如，只有他被允许拥有金块，商人们只能用金粉来交易。国王具有某些被赋予的神秘品质，所有的奴隶都只效忠于他。例如，在国王吃饭的时候，任何人都无权在他面前出现，所有来客都必须赤脚、鞠躬，并在头上浇上灰尘。这种个人崇拜和一个人身上的极端集权，使帝国的命运起伏取决于某个国王是否有才能。

These problems of governance were yet to come, though, and Sundiata would continue to expand his territory to include the old kingdoms of Ghana, Walata, Tadmekka, and Songhai. Niani, now no longer in existence but probably located on a plain near the all-year-round navigable Sankarani River, was selected as the empire's capital. It was protected by mountains and was close to the two key sources of trade goods: forests and waterways.

          不过，这些治理问题尚未到来，松迪亚塔将继续扩大他的领土，包括加纳、瓦拉塔、塔德梅卡和桑海等旧王国。尼亚尼（Niani）现在已经不存在了，但它可能位于常年可通航的桑卡拉尼河附近的平原上，在当时是帝国的首都。它受到山脉的保护，靠近两个关键的贸易货物来源：森林和水路。

Tribute was acquired from conquered chiefdoms, although many local chiefs were permitted to continue to rule their own people but with a Mali-appointed governor to assist them, often backed by a garrison. Additional guarantees of loyalty included taking royal hostages and keeping them at the capital. This federation prospered, developing over the next century into one of Africa's richest ever empires whose wealth would astound both Europe and Arabia. Further, and perhaps more important for the ordinary people of Mali, foreign visitors noted the high degree of justice they saw, the safety with which one could travel from place to place, and the abundance of food in all villages.

          虽然许多地方酋长被允许继续统治他们自己的人民，但有一个马里任命的总督协助他们，并经常有驻军支持，但他们还是从被征服的酋长领地获得了贡品。对忠诚的额外保证包括接受皇家人质并将其留在首都。这个联盟繁荣昌盛，在接下来的一个世纪里发展成为非洲有史以来最富有的帝国之一，其财富令欧洲和阿拉伯都感到震惊。此外，也许对马里的普通人来说更重要的是，外国游客评论说他们看到了高度公正，人们可以安全地从一个地方到另一个地方，以及所有村庄都有充裕的食物。

贸易与廷巴克图

Like its political predecessors, the Mali Empire prospered thanks to trade and its prime location, situated between the rain forests of southern West Africa and the powerful Muslim caliphates of North Africa. The Niger River provided ready access to Africa's interior and Atlantic coast, while the Berber-controlled camel caravans that crossed the Sahara Desert ensured valuable commodities came from the north. The Mali rulers had a triple income: they taxed the passage of trade goods, bought goods and sold them on at much higher prices, and had access to their own valuable natural resources. Significantly, the Mali Empire controlled the rich gold-bearing regions of Galam, Bambuk, and Bure. One of the main trade exchanges was gold dust for salt from the Sahara. Gold was in particular demand from European powers like Castille in Spain and Venice and Genoa in Italy, where coinage was now being minted in the precious metal.

          与其政治前辈一样，马里帝国的繁荣得益于贸易和其优越的地理位置，它位于西非南部的雨林和北非强大的穆斯林哈里发国之间。尼日尔河提供了通往非洲内陆和大西洋海岸的便利通道，而柏柏尔人控制的穿越撒哈拉沙漠的骆驼商队则确保了来自北方的宝贵商品。马里统治者有三重收入：他们对贸易货物的通过征税，以高得多的价格购买和出售商品，并且可以利用自己宝贵的自然资源。值得注意的是，马里帝国控制着盛产金矿的加拉姆、班布克和布雷地区。主要的贸易往来之一是用金粉换取撒哈拉地区的盐。西班牙的卡斯蒂利亚和意大利的威尼斯和热那亚等欧洲大国对黄金的需求特别大，这些国家都在铸造贵金属硬币。

Timbuktu, founded c. 1100 by the nomadic Tuaregs, was a semi-independent trade port which had the double advantage of being on the Niger River bend and the starting point for the trans-Saharan caravans. The city would be monopolised and then taken over by the Mali kings who made it into one of the most important and most cosmopolitan trade centres in Africa. Through Timbuktu there passed such lucrative goods as ivory, textiles, horses (important for military use), glassware, weapons, sugar, kola nuts (a mild stimulant), cereals (e.g. sorghum and millet), spices, stone beads, craft products, and slaves. Goods were bartered for or paid using an agreed upon commodity such as copper or gold ingots, set quantities of salt or ivory, or even cowry shells (which came from Persia).

          廷巴克图大约在1100年由游牧的图阿雷格人建立，是一个半独立的贸易港口，具有位于尼日尔河拐弯处和跨撒哈拉商队

起点的双重优势。这座城市后来被马里国王垄断并接管，他们把廷巴克图变成了非洲最重要和最国际化的贸易中心之一。通过廷巴克图，象牙、纺织品、马匹（对军事用途很重要）、玻璃制品、武器、糖、可乐坚果（一种温和的兴奋剂）、谷物（如高粱和小米）、香料、石珠、手工艺品和奴隶等有利可图的货物被运走。货物是用商定的商品进行交换或支付的，如铜锭或金锭、一定数量的盐或象牙，甚至是贝壳（来自波斯）。

曼萨·穆萨一世

After a string of seemingly lacklustre rulers, the Mali Empire enjoyed its second golden era during the reign of Mansa Musa I in the first half of the 13th century. With an army numbering around 100,000 men, including an armoured cavalry corps of 10,000 horses, and with the talented general Saran Mandian, Mansa Musa was able to maintain and extend Mali's empire, doubling its territory. He controlled lands up to the Gambia and lower Senegal in the west; in the north, tribes were subdued along the whole length of the Western Sahara border region; in the east, control spread up to Gao on the Niger River and, to the south, the Bure region and the forests of what became known as the Gold Coast came under Mali oversight. The Mali Empire thus came to include many different religious, ethnic, and linguistic groups.

          在经历了一连串看似乏善可陈的统治者之后，马里帝国在13世纪上半叶的曼萨·穆萨一世统治时期迎来了它的第二个黄金时代。曼萨·穆萨拥有一支约10万人的军队，包括一支由1万匹马组成的装甲骑兵队，并拥有才华横溢的将军萨兰·曼迪安，他能够维持并扩大马里的帝国，使其领土翻倍。他控制的土地远至冈比亚和西部的下塞内加尔；北至西撒哈拉边境地区的所有部落都被征服；东至尼日尔河上的加奥，南至布雷地区和后来被称为黄金海岸的森林都在马里的监督之下。因此，此时的马里帝国包含了许多不同的宗教、种族和语言群体。

To govern these diverse peoples, Mansa Musa divided his empire into provinces with each one ruled by a governor (farba) appointed personally by him and responsible for local taxes, justice, and settling tribal disputes. The administration was further improved with greater records kept and sent to the centralised government offices at Niani. With more tribute from more conquered chiefs, more trade routes under Mali control, and even more natural resources to exploit, Mansa Musa and the Mali elite became immensely rich. When the Mali king visited Cairo in 1324, he spent or simply gave away so much gold that the price of bullion crashed by 20%. Such riches set off a never-ending round of rumours that Mali was a kingdom paved with gold. In Spain c. 1375, a mapmaker was inspired to create Europe's first detailed map of West Africa, part of the Catalan Atlas. The map has Mansa Musa wearing an impressive gold crown and triumphantly brandishing a huge lump of gold in his hand. European explorers would spend the next five centuries trying to locate the source of this gold and the fabled trading city of Timbuktu.

          为了管理这些不同的民族，曼萨·穆萨将他的帝国划分为几个省，每个省由他亲自任命的总督（farba）统治，负责地方税收、司法和解决部落争端。行政管理得到了进一步改善，保存了更多的记录，并送往位于尼亚尼的中央政府办公室。随着被征服的酋长们贡献更多，更多的贸易路线在马里的控制之下，甚至更多的自然资源被逐步开发，曼萨·穆萨和马里的精英们变得非常富有。当马里国王在1324年访问开罗时，他花掉或干脆送出了大量黄金，以至于金银价格暴跌了20%。这样的财富掀起了一轮无休止的谣言，说马里是一个用黄金铺成的王国。约1375年，在西班牙，一位地图绘制者受到启发，绘制了欧洲第一幅详细的西非地图，这是《加泰罗尼亚地图集》的一部分。该地图上的曼萨·穆萨头戴令人印象深刻的金冠，胜利地挥舞着手中的巨大金块。欧洲探险家们在接下来的五个世纪里一直试图找到这些黄金的来源以及传说中的贸易城市廷巴克图。

伊斯兰教的传播

Islam spread through parts of West Africa via the Arab merchants who traded there. Noted Muslim travellers and chroniclers like Ibn Battuta (1304 - c. 1369) and Ibn Khaldin (1332-1406) recorded that even Mali's first ruler Sundiata converted to Islam. However, the Malinke oral tradition, which was kept up over the generations by specialised bards (griots), presents a different story. Although recognising Islam was present in Mali long before Sundiata's reign, the oral tradition maintains that the first ruler of the Mali Empire did not reject the indigenous animist religion. We do know that Sundiata's son, Mansa Uli (aka Mansa Wali or Yerelenku), went on a pilgrimage to Mecca in the 1260s or 1270s, and this would be a continuing trend amongst many of Mali's rulers.

          伊斯兰教通过在那里进行贸易的阿拉伯商人传播到西非的部分地区。著名的穆斯林旅行家和编年史家，如伊本·白图泰（1304-约1369年）和伊本·哈尔丁（1332-1406年）记载，甚至马里的第一位统治者松迪亚塔也皈依了伊斯兰教。然而，由专业吟游诗人（griots）代代相传的马林克口述传统则讲述了一个不同的故事。尽管承认伊斯兰教早在松迪亚塔统治之前就已经存在于马里，但口述传统认为，马里帝国的第一位统治者并没有拒绝本土的泛灵论宗教。我们确实知道，松迪亚塔的儿子瓦利一世（又名Mansa Wali或Yerelenku）在13世纪60年代或70年代前往麦加朝圣，这将成为马里许多统治者的持续趋势。  

Islam in West Africa really took off, though, from the reign of Mansa Musa I. He famously went to Mecca and, impressed with what he saw on his travels, Mansa Musa brought back home Muslim architects, scholars, and books. Mosques were built such as Timbuktu's 'Great Mosque' (aka Djinguereber or Jingereber), and Koranic schools and universities were established which quickly gained an international reputation. Studies were actually much wider than religion and included history, geography, astronomy, and medicine. Great libraries were built up with tens of thousands of books and manuscripts, many of which survive today.

          西非的伊斯兰教真正从曼萨·穆萨一世的统治下起飞。他的麦加之旅很有名，曼萨·穆萨对他在旅途中所见所闻印象深刻，而且他还带回了穆斯林建筑师、学者和书籍。他让人修建了廷巴克图的“大清真寺”（又称Djinguereber或Jingereber），并建立了古兰经学校和大学，很快就获得了国际声誉。这些研究实际上比宗教广泛得多，包括历史、地理、天文学和医学。还建立了巨大的图书馆，拥有数以万计的书籍和手稿，其中许多保存至今。

As more people were converted, so more Muslim clerics were attracted from abroad and the religion was spread further across West Africa. Many native converts studied in such places as Fez, Morocco, and became great scholars, missionaries, and even saints, and so Islam came to be seen no longer as a foreign religion but a black African one. Despite the spread of Islam, it is also true that ancient indigenous animist beliefs continued to be practised, especially in rural communities, as noted by travellers like Ibn Battuta who visited Mali c. 1352. In addition, Islamic studies were conducted in Arabic not native languages, and this further impeded its popularity outside the educated clerical class of towns and cities. Even the Islam that did take hold in Mali was a particular variation of that practised in the Arab world, perhaps because Mali rulers could not afford to completely dismiss the indigenous religious practices and beliefs that the majority of their people clung on to.

          随着皈依者人数的增加，也吸引了更多来自国外的穆斯林神职人员，宗教在西非进一步传播。许多本土皈依者在非斯（摩洛哥）等地求学，成为伟大的学者、传教士甚至圣人。因此，伊斯兰教不再被视为外国宗教，成为黑非洲的宗教。尽管伊斯兰教得到了传播，但正如约1352年访问马里的伊本·白图泰（Ibn Battuta）等旅行者所指出的那样，古老的本土泛灵论信仰仍在继续，尤其是在农村社区。此外，伊斯兰教的研究是用阿拉伯文而不是本地母语进行的，这进一步阻碍了伊斯兰教在城镇中受过教育的教士阶层之外的普及。即使是在马里扎根的伊斯兰教，也是阿拉伯世界所实行的伊斯兰教的一个特殊变种，也许是因为马里的统治者无法完全摒弃他们大多数人所坚持的本土宗教习俗和信仰。

马里的建筑

The buildings of the Mali Empire, some of which like the Sankore mosque in Timbuktu still stand, are one of the most recognisable features of the region and have become international symbols of Africa's rich pre-colonial history. Mali architects had a distinct disadvantage because of the rarity of stone in the region, and for this reason, buildings were typically constructed using beaten earth (banco) reinforced with wood which often sticks out in beams from the exterior surfaces. Despite the limited materials, the mosques, in particular, are still imposing multi-storied structures with towers, huge wooden doors, and tiered minarets. Other large buildings included warehouses (fondacs) which were used to store goods before they were transported elsewhere and which had up to 40 apartments for merchants to live in. Other examples of the Mali baked-mud buildings which impress today, although many are early 20th-century reconstructions, include the huge mosques at Mopti and Djenne.

           马里帝国的建筑，其中一些如廷巴克图的桑科雷清真寺仍然屹立不倒，是该地区最容易识别的特征之一，并已经成为非洲丰富的前殖民历史的国际象征。由于该地区石料稀少，马里的建筑师有明显的劣势，因此，建筑通常使用粘土（banco），用木头加固，木头经常从外表面伸出来，形成横梁。尽管材料有限，但尤其是清真寺，仍然是气势恢宏的多层建筑，有塔楼、巨大的木门和分层尖塔。其他大型建筑包括仓库（fondacs），这些仓库在货物被运往其他地方之前用于储存货物，并且有多达40个公寓供商人居住。马里粘土建筑的其他例子今天给人留下深刻印象，尽管许多是20世纪初的重建，包括莫普提和杰内的巨大清真寺。

On a smaller scale, excavations at Niani have revealed the remains of houses and their stone foundations, confirming later sources that the richer members of society built stone houses. Arab chroniclers describe another type of domestic building, which was constructed using beaten earth bricks and with ceilings made of wooden beams and reeds, the whole formed into a conical roof. Flooring was made using earth mixed with sand.

          规模较小的情况下，在尼亚尼考古发掘中，人们发现了房屋及其石质地基的遗迹，证实了后来的资料显示，社会中较富裕的成员建造了石质房屋。阿拉伯编年史家描述了另一种类型的家庭建筑，这种建筑使用打制的土砖，天花板由木梁和芦苇制成，整体形成一个锥形屋顶。地板是用泥土和沙子混合制成的。

马里的艺术与文化

We have already noted that the Malinke had a rich tradition of recounting legends and community histories orally by specialised story-tellers know as griots. These stories, passed down from generation to generation (and continuing today), were often accompanied by music. During the Mali Empire, there were even songs reserved for certain people who alone had the right to have them sung in their honour, this was especially so for renowned warriors and hunters. Music was also an important part of religious festivals when masked dancers performed.

          我们已经注意到，马林克人有一个丰富的传统，即由专门的说书人（griots）口头讲述传说和社区历史。这些故事代代相传（一直延续到今天），常常伴随着音乐。在马里帝国时期，甚至有专门为某些人保留的歌曲，只有他们才有权为自己的荣誉而演唱，这对著名的战士和猎人来说尤其如此。音乐也是宗教节日的一个重要组成部分，当时由戴面具的舞者进行表演。

Pottery and sculpture were produced, as they had been at noted centres like Djenne since the 9th century. Sculptures are generally up to 50 cm tall and made of solid pottery but sometimes with a reinforcing iron rod interior. Wood and brass were other popular materials for sculpture and, to a lesser degree, stone. Decoration is typically incised, painted, or achieved by adding three-dimensional pieces. Subjects include human figures, especially bearded warriors riding a horse but also many kneeling or crouching figures with upturned faces. Figures are often realistic portrayals of ordinary people, sometimes showing symptoms of tropical diseases. Although it is rare for artworks of this period to come with a certain provenance obtained from professionally excavated sites, the sculptures are so numerous that it seems likely many were used as everyday decorative objects as well as for ritual or burial purposes.

          自 9 世纪以来，杰内等著名中心就开始生产陶瓷和雕塑。雕塑一般高达50厘米，由坚固的陶器制成，但有时内部有加固的铁棒。木头和黄铜是其他流行的雕塑材料，在较小的程度上，还有石头。纹饰多采用镂刻、彩绘或加立体片制作。主题包括人物，特别是骑着马的大胡子战士，但也有许多跪着或蹲着的人物，脸部上扬。这些人物通常是普通人的现实表现，有时会表现出热带疾病的症状。虽然这一时期的艺术品很少有从专业发掘的遗址中获得一定的出处，但这些雕塑数量众多，似乎很多都是作为日常装饰品以及用于仪式或埋葬的。  

衰     落

The Mali Empire was in decline by the 15th century. The ill-defined rules for royal succession often led to civil wars as brothers and uncles fought each other for the throne. Then, as trade routes opened up elsewhere, several rival kingdoms developed to the west, notably the Songhai. European ships, especially those belonging to the Portuguese, were now regularly sailing down the west coast of Africa and so the Saharan caravans faced stiff competition as the most efficient means to transport goods from West Africa to the Mediterranean. There were attacks on Mali by the Tuareg in 1433 and by the Mossi people, who at that time controlled the lands south of the Niger River. Around 1468, King Sunni Ali of the Songhai Empire (r. 1464-1492) conquered the rump of the Mali Empire which was now reduced to controlling a small western pocket of its once great territory. What remained of the Mali Empire would be absorbed into the Moroccan Empire in the mid-17th century.

          马里帝国在15世纪时已经衰落。王室继承的规则不明确，经常导致兄弟和叔父为争夺王位而相互争斗，引发内战。然后，随着贸易路线在其他地方的开辟，几个敌对的王国向西发展，特别是桑海。欧洲的船只，特别是属于葡萄牙人的船只，现在经常沿着非洲的西海岸航行，因此撒哈拉商队作为从西非向地中海运送货物的最有效方式面临着激烈的竞争。1433年，图阿雷格人和当时控制尼日尔河以南土地的莫西人对马里发动了攻击。1468年左右，桑海帝国的逊尼派国王阿里（Sunni Ali）（1464-1492年）征服了马里帝国的残余部分，马里帝国现在沦为控制其曾经广阔领土的一小部分西部地区。马里帝国剩下的部分将在17世纪中期被纳入摩洛哥帝国。  

参考书目：

Curtin, P. African History. Pearson, 1995.

de Villiers, M. Timbuktu. Walker Books, 2007.

Desmond Clark, J. (ed). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Fage, J.D. (ed). The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Garlake, P. Early Art and Architecture of Africa. Oxford University Press, 2002.

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Ki-Zerbo, J. (ed). UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition. University of California Press, 1998.

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原文作者：Mark Cartwright

          驻意大利的历史作家。他的主要兴趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神话和发现所有文明的共同思想。他拥有政治哲学硕士学位，是《世界历史百科全书》的出版总监。

原文网址：https://www.worldhistory.org/Mali_Empire/