中世纪世界生活手册（二十二）
上一章
女性的角色
HARIM（穆斯林宫殿或房屋中专供妇女居住的部分）
女性专室“harim”（神圣不可侵犯的地方；也称后宫（harem），指在一夫多妻制环境下的女性以及未成年儿子的居住场所，禁止成年男性进入。日本动漫中的“ハーレムもの”（后宫型作品）中的后宫一词就来源于此概念）中的传统与《古兰经》中规定先知的妻子和女儿应蒙上面纱不被公众看到的经文有关，更广泛地说，这是区分“信教女性”与非穆斯林的标志(Q 3:59)。随着伊斯兰教走出阿拉伯，这一习俗逐渐被采纳或强加于人，成为模仿先知“圣行”传统的一部分。特别是在城镇和城市中心，不同的社会阶层、穆斯林和非穆斯林同居在一起，富裕和有权势的家庭会把家属安置在harem（harim），即家中专门的女眷区。对于贫穷的劳动妇女、仆人、在城市中心工作的奴隶女性以及农民妇女，则不采用这种做法。几个世纪以来，法学家和《古兰经》注释者对“女性隐居”的性质和程度进行了辩论和阐述。埃及马利基学派法学家伊本·哈吉（Ibn al-Hajj，生于 1336 年）的观点就是一个极端的例子。他引用虔诚的长者的话说，女性只有在三种情况下才可以离开家：去新郎家、参加父母去世的葬礼以及前往自己的墓地。
The tradition of secluding women in the harim (an inviolable place or sanctuary; also harem) is linked to Quranic verses stipulating that the Prophet’s wives and daughters should be veiled from public sight and more generally as a sign distinguishing “believing women” from nonMuslims (Q 3:59). As Islam spread out of Arabia, this custom was adopted or imposed as part of the tradition of imitating the Prophet’s Sunna. In towns and urban centers in particular, where different social classes, Muslims, and non-Muslims cohabited, wealthy and powerful families secluded their women in the harim, the special women’s section of the home. Poor and working women, servants, and slave women working in urban centers as well peasant women, did not adopt this practice. Over the centuries jurists and commentators of the Quran debated and elaborated upon the nature and degree of the seclusion of women. An extreme example is seen in the opinion of the Egyptian Maliki jurist Ibn al-Hajj (b. 1336), who wrote that women should not even go out to shop in the market because they would be led to improper acts with the shopkeepers. He quoted pious elders who said that a woman should leave her home only on three occasions: when she goes to the house of her bridegroom, when she attends the funeral on the death of her parents, and when she goes to her own grave.
实际上，女性从未完全脱离公共领域。妇女们在家中相互探望，参加结婚、孩子出生和割礼的庆祝活动，在公共墓地悼念死者，参加周五的集体祷告，参加其他宗教节日和习俗，并有指定的日子去公共澡堂洗澡。在伊朗等一些国家，妇女参加马球比赛和其他体育活动。隐居习俗以风俗（urf）为基础，因地而异。例如，14 世纪的世界旅行家伊本·白图泰（Ibn Battuta）说过，“土耳其人非常尊重妇女，因为她们的地位比男人更高贵”（Ibn Battuta 415）。商人夫妇在公共场合结伴而行，妇女不戴面纱。在整个伊斯兰世界，富有的妇女通过中介管理自己的财产，并在建立和管理用于建造宗教建筑和慈善事业的宗教捐赠（waqfs）方面发挥着重要作用。虽然妇女被禁止成为卡迪 (Qadi)或穆夫提（muftis），但她们可以学习宗教科学，包括法律。特别虔诚的妇女，如著名的安达卢西亚神学家和法官 Mundhir ibn Said al-Balluti（卒于 996 年）的妹妹，建立了自己的里巴特（ribats，“旅社”、“避难所”、“疗愈所”），在那里女性可以学习、祈祷并全身心地投入宗教生活。
In practice women were never completely secluded from the public sphere. Women visited each other in their homes, participated in the celebration of marriages and the birth and circumcision of children, mourned their dead at public cemeteries, attended the Friday congregational prayer, took part in other religious festivals and practices, and had days designated for visiting the public bathhouses. In some countries, such as Iran, women participated in polo matches and other sports. The practice of seclusion was based on custom (urf) and varied from place to place. For instance, the 14thcentury world traveler Ibn Battuta remarked upon the “great respect shown to women by the Turks, for they hold a more dignified position than the men” (Ibn Battuta 415). Merchant couples traveled together in public, and women did not use the veil. Throughout the Islamic world wealthy women administered their own property through intermediaries and were prominent in the establishment and administration of religious endowments (waqfs) for the construction of religious buildings and charitable enterprises. Although women were barred from becoming qadis and muftis, they could and did study the religious sciences, including law. Especially pious women, such as the sister of the noted Andalusian theologian and judge Mundhir ibn Said al-Balluti (d. 996), founded their own monasteries (ribats), where they could study, pray, and devote themselves entirely to the religious life.
结婚与离婚
《古兰经》使女性在家庭中从属于男子的社会地位、一夫多妻制、继承权和财产权以及女性在法庭上作证的价值合法化。例如，妇女的婚姻是其男性监护人与新郎之间的民事契约。如果女儿尚未进入青春期，作为监护人的父亲可以在未经女儿同意的情况下将其许配给新郎。青春期过后，必须征得她的同意，但如果她以前没有结过婚，可以通过沉默表示同意。
The Quran legitimates women’s social subordination to men in their family, the practice of polygamy, inheritance and property rights, and the value ascribed to their testimony in court. For instance, a woman’s marriage was a civil contract between her male guardian and the bridegroom. A father as guardian could pledge his daughter in marriage without her consent if she had not yet reached puberty. After puberty her consent was necessary, but if she had not been married previously, consent could be given by silence.
婚约规定新郎要给新娘一笔嫁妆，即“mahr”（麦亥尔）。新娘保留嫁妆作为自己的财产，她所拥有或继承的任何其他财产仍是她的财产；相比之下，在西方基督教国家的许多地方，妇女的财产在结婚时就转移给了丈夫。妻子对丈夫唯命是从，但作为回报，她有权根据自己的社会地位获得衣物、住宿和生活费，并有权决定是否与丈夫发生性关系。避孕也是被允许的，但未经妻子同意，丈夫不得采取避孕措施。
The marriage contract provided for a dowry, or mahr, that the bridegroom gave to the bride. She retained this as her property, and whatever else she owned or inherited remained her property; in contrast in many places in the Christian West, a woman’s property was transferred to her husband upon marriage. The wife owed her husband obedience but in return had the right to clothing, lodging, and maintenance, in accordance with her social status, and sexual intercourse with her husband. Contraception was also permitted, but a husband could not practice contraception without his wife’s consent.
妻子可以因为阳痿、疯癫和剥夺自己的权利等原因与丈夫离婚。她必须去找卡迪（卡迪(Qadi)才能离婚。与此相反，丈夫可以在证人在场的情况下，无需说明任何理由，只需简单的几句话就可以休妻，而无需找卡迪(Qadi)。但是，不能认为被休妻的妇女会立即被赶出婚姻家庭。在休妻之后，逊尼派法律规定了三个月的等待期，以确定妻子是否怀孕。家庭成员或其他有关方面会介入调查，看是否有和解的可能。在此期间，丈夫必须像往常一样赡养妻子，如果妻子怀孕，即使夫妻双方决定离婚，丈夫也必须抚养妻子和孩子，直到孩子断奶为止。什叶派法律中的休妻规定更为严格，但也有在特定时期（即“muta”）内临时结婚的规定。被休妻的妻子可以带着自己的财产回到父母家中。她将拥有婚生子女的监护权，并有责任抚养他们到某一特定年龄，每部法典对这一年龄都有不同的规定。过了这个年龄，父亲或其家人将拥有监护权。
A wife could divorce her husband for such reasons as impotence, madness, and denial of her rights. She was required to go to a qadi in order to obtain the divorce. A husband, by contrast, could repudiate his wife without giving any reason and by a simple formula of words in the presence of a witness, without the need for a qadi. It should not be assumed, however, that the woman so repudiated was immediately thrown out of the marital home. After the repudiation Sunni law decreed a three-month waiting period to determine whether the wife might be pregnant. Family members or other interested parties would intervene to see whether reconciliation would be possible. During this time the husband was required to maintain his wife as usual, and in the case of pregnancy he was to provide for both wife and child until the latter was weaned from breastfeeding even should the couple decide to go through with the divorce. In Shiite law repudiation rules were stricter, but there was provision for temporary marriage for a specific period, the muta. A repudiated wife could return with her own property to the home of her parents. She would have custody of children of the marriage as well as the duty of raising them until a particular age, which each legal code defined differently. After that age the father or his family would have custody.
多配偶制（POLYGAMY）
伊斯兰教的一夫多妻制是以《古兰经》和先知的榜样为基础的。先知以政治政治家的身份缔结了许多婚姻，其中大部分婚姻的目的是巩固部落对新伊斯兰政体的效忠。《古兰经》允许男性一夫多妻，最多可娶四位妻子，条件是丈夫必须平等对待所有妻子，并且不忽视对任何一位妻子的性责任。穆斯林男性也可以拥有奴隶妾。不过，她们不能对丈夫提出性要求，只有丈夫才能对她们提出性要求。婚约中可以写明禁止娶一个以上的妻子和妾。
The Islamic practice of polygamy is based on the Quran and the example of the Prophet. The Prophet, in his capacity as a political statesman, contracted numerous marriages, most of which served the purpose of consolidating the allegiance of tribes into the new Islamic polity. The Quran legitimates male polygamy of up to four wives, provided that the husband treat them all equally and not neglect his sexual duties to any of them. A Muslim male also might have slave concubines. They, however, could not make sexual demands of him, only he of them. A marriage contract could be written to forbid any more than one wife and any additional concubines.
继 承
继承法也有利于男性。男性可以按照自己的意愿将三分之一的财产遗赠给他人或机构，否则这些人或机构将无法继承他的财产。三分之二的财产则按照严格的规定进行分配。他的妻子最多只能得到三分之一的财产。如果儿子和女儿都继承了死者的财产，女儿将继承儿子一半的份额。如果死者只有女儿，她们将获得一定比例的财产，但剩余部分将归男性亲属所有。这是逊尼派法律的常规做法。在什叶派法律中，如果没有儿子，女儿可以继承一切。逊尼派法律规定，女儿只能继承儿子一半的财产，在任何法律案件中，女性的证词都只有男性证词的一半份量。
Inheritance laws also favored males. A man could bequeath one-third of his property in whatever way he wished to people or institutions that otherwise would not inherit from him. Two-thirds of his property was divided according to strict rules. His wife would receive at most one-third of that property. If sons and daughters succeeded the deceased, a daughter would inherit half the share of a son. If the dead man had only daughters, they would receive a certain proportion of his property, but the remainder would go to his male relatives. This was routine under Sunni law. In Shiite law daughters could inherit everything if there were no sons. Sunni law stipulated that daughters could receive only half as much as sons, and in any legal case a woman’s testimony had only half the weight of that of a man.
政治权力
在家庭法和公共领域对女性施加的一系列限制并不妨碍精英女性在王位背后或直接行使真正的权力，尽管她们要与周围的男性同谋。最突出的例子是埃及苏丹夫人、马穆鲁克王朝的建立者、与路易九世率领的法兰克十字军进行圣战（1226-1270 年）的指挥官舍哲尔·杜尔（Shajrat al-Durr，珍珠小枝，卒于 1259 年）。舍哲尔·杜尔最初是一名土库曼奴隶，但在成为埃及苏丹萨利赫·阿尤布的妻子后，她的地位得到了提升。当她的丈夫在国外处理军事或国家事务时，舍哲尔·杜尔代表他担任摄政王。1249 年，路易九世率军突袭埃及的达米埃塔，舍哲尔·杜尔组织了保卫国家的行动，击退了法兰克人。一年后，萨利赫·阿尤布去世，阿尤布军队中的土耳其奴隶士兵成功地将她推上了王位，击败了她的非土耳其继子的野心，从而开创了马穆鲁克王朝。与其他男性苏丹一样，舍哲尔·杜尔签署了皇家法令，以她的名字铸造了硬币，并在每周五的布道中代表她宣读祝福。舍哲尔·杜尔的苏丹统治是短暂的。她即位仅两个月后，阿拔斯王朝的哈里发就下令废黜她，由马穆鲁克士兵艾巴克取而代之。舍哲尔·杜尔和艾巴克结婚后，她继续行使行政统治权，签署王室法令，并以自己和丈夫的名义铸造钱币。诚然，这样的女性统治者是例外，而且总是伴随着男性统治特权的前提。
The litany of restrictions imposed upon women in family law and in the public realm did not impede elite women from exercising real power either behind or directly from the throne, albeit subject to the complicity of the men surrounding them. The most spectacular example is Shajrat al-Durr (d. 1259), the sultana of Egypt, founder of the Mamluk dynasty, and commander of the jihad against the Frankish crusaders led by Louis IX (1226–70). Shajrat al-Durr began her life as a Turkoman slave but rose in rank when she became the wife of the sultan of Egypt Salih Ayyub. Shajrat al-Durr acted as regent on behalf of her husband while he was abroad attending to military or state matters. On one such occasion in 1249, Louis IX led a surprise attack upon Damietta in Egypt, and it was Shajrat al-Durr who organized the defense of the country, repelling the Frankish soldiers. When Salih Ayyub died one year later, the Turkish slave soldiers of the Ayyubid army succeeded in placing her on the throne over and against the ambitions of her non-Turkish stepson and thus inaugurated the Mamluk dynasty. As did any male sultan, Shajrat al-Durr signed royal decrees, had coins minted in her name, and had the blessing pronounced on her behalf during the weekly Friday sermon. Shajrat al-Durr’s reign as sultana was short lived. A mere two months after she assumed the throne, the Abbasid caliph commanded that she be deposed and replaced by the Mamluk soldier Aybak. After Shajrat and Aybak were married, she continued to exercise administrative rule, sign royal decrees, and have coins minted in both her and her husband’s name. Admittedly, such women rulers were exceptional and always accompanied by the assumption of male prerogative to rule.
《古兰经》对女性的影响
尽管伊斯兰教对中世纪穆斯林女性的社会权利施加了相当大的限制，但《古兰经》也承认男女在崇拜行为和对真主的义务方面基本平等。在亚伯拉罕信仰的经文中，《古兰经》是独一无二的，它明确提到了女性，并且在对信仰和正义行为的奖赏方面不分男女，正如以下经文所示： “凡行善者，无论男女，并为信士，他们都将进入花园（乐园）”（Q40:40；16:97）。
Despite the considerable limitations that Islam placed on the social rights of medieval Muslim women, the Quran also recognizes the essential equality of men and women in their acts of worship and obligations toward God. The Quran is unique among the scriptures of the Abrahamic faiths in explicitly addressing women and does not distinguish between men and women in the reward for belief and righteous behavior, as the following verse indicates: “Whoso doeth right, whether male or female, and is a believer, all such will enter the Garden (Paradise)” (Q 40:40; 16:97).
非穆斯林（Dhimmis）
伊斯兰教创立了一种独特的制度，称之为“dhimma”，它给予其他天启宗教的成员（犹太人、基督徒、琐罗亚斯德教徒和其他人）以款待和保护，作为他们接受伊斯兰统治的交换条件。非穆斯林可以继续信奉自己的宗教和习俗；但是，他们必须遵守一系列旨在将他们与穆斯林人口明确区分开来的规定。在一些地方，这意味着服装上的区别，如禁止穿戴与先知穆罕默德有关的颜色，禁止携带武器或骑马。贱民不得与穆斯林结婚，不得继承穆斯林的财产，也不得享受伊斯兰天课。他们必须缴纳特殊的人头税“吉兹亚”。他们还必须获得官方许可才能建造或维修宗教寺庙。这些限制并不妨碍某些有影响力的犹太人和基督徒在宫廷中担任要职，如在法蒂玛王朝和马穆鲁克王朝的埃及以及阿拔斯王朝的伊拉克，基督徒在宫廷中担任要职，在倭马亚王朝的西班牙，犹太人在宫廷中担任要职。在迫害基督徒或犹太人的情况下，例如在法蒂玛王朝哈基姆（996-1021 年统治时期）或西班牙穆瓦希德王朝统治时期，迫害的原因是政治与经济而非宗教不容忍。
Islam created a unique institution called dhimma, which accorded hospitality and protection to members of other revealed religions—Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and others—in exchange for their acceptance of Islamic rule. The dhimmis were allowed to continue practicing their religion and customs; however, they were subject to a number of provisions that aimed to differentiate them clearly from the Muslim population. In some places this meant distinctions in clothing, such as the prohibition against wearing colors associated with the prophet Muhammad and prohibitions against carrying weapons or riding horses. Dhimmis were not allowed to marry Muslims, inherit property from them, or benefit from the Islamic zakat. They had to pay a special poll tax, the jizya. They also had to obtain official permission to construct or repair religious temples. Such restrictions did not prevent certain influential Jews and Christians from holding high offices in the court, as was the case in Fatimid and Mamluk Egypt and Abbasid Iraq, where Christians held prominent positions, or in Umayyad Spain, where the Jews were prominent in the court. Where persecution of Christians or Jews did occur, for instance during the reign of the Fatimid caliph al-Hakam (r. 996–1021) or of the Almohads in Spain, the reasons were political and economic rather than religious intolerance.
奴隶制与马穆鲁克
伊斯兰法律允许奴隶制。与欧洲在南北美洲国家实行的奴隶制不同，伊斯兰教法规定，奴隶虽然不享有自由公民的全部权利，但必须受到公正和善意的对待。伊斯兰教法规定，让奴隶获得自由是一种值得称道的虔诚行为。禁止奴役自由出生的穆斯林，大多数奴隶是作为战争俘虏或通过与非穆斯林国家的奴隶贸易获得的。奴隶制有好几种，习惯上的普通奴隶被称为“Abd”，在城市通常是女性家庭佣人，在农村则是农业工人。受过教育的男性奴隶可以代表主人旅行和进行商业交易。一种特殊的宫廷女奴“qiyan”，其地位类似于日本的艺妓，她们因具有歌唱家、舞蹈家、诗人和学者的专长而备受推崇。
Islamic law permitted the practice of slavery. In contrast to the European practice of slavery in the countries of North and South America, in which slaves were not considered full human beings by law, Islamic law stipulated that slaves were persons who, while not enjoying the full rights of free citizens, must be treated justly and kindly. The sharia designated the manumission of slaves as a meritorious act of piety. It was forbidden to enslave free-born Muslims, and most slaves were acquired as war captives or through the slave trade with non-Muslim countries. There were several varieties of slavery. The customary general slave, known as an abd, was most often a female domestic servant in the urban areas and an agricultural worker in the countryside. An educated male slave could travel and conduct business transactions on behalf of his master. A special category of female court slaves, the qiyan, whose status resembled that of the Japanese geisha, were highly prized for their expertise as singers, dancers, poets, and scholars.
奴隶的另一个阿拉伯语单词是“mamluk”，意为“被拥有的人”，是一个专业术语，指的是年轻时被奴役的士兵，他们接受过战争职业培训，在统治者或高级军官的监督下皈依伊斯兰教，并注册成为王国常备职业军队的一员。从斯拉夫国家、高加索、中亚和非洲招募的军事奴隶曾在阿拔斯王朝、西班牙倭马亚王朝和其他伊斯兰王朝的军队中服役。突厥裔是奴隶的主要来源，尼罗河和奥克苏斯河之间的地区是穆斯林宫廷最主要的军事奴隶兵源。作为军事奴隶，突厥裔的体力和心理素质尤为重要。阿拉伯人钦佩他们的民族自豪感、敏锐的团结意识以及作为骑射手的超凡能力。奥斯曼帝国的苏丹们和他们的前辈一样，从非穆斯林地区，尤其是罗斯南部和高加索地区，征召军事奴隶。他们在巴尔干和安纳托利亚定期征收基督教臣民的子女为奴。1400 年至 1700 年间，伊斯兰教领袖允许捐献儿童，让他们成为伊斯兰教宫廷和城市的奴隶。这种“儿童税”（德夫希尔梅被视为一种特种税，从基督徒男孩中征兵的时间和规模根据帝国政府的需要决定）被称为 devshirme（德夫希尔梅）。马穆鲁克（mamluk）最重要的用途是作为骑兵战士。
Another Arabic word for slave, mamluk, meaning “one who is owned,” was used as a technical term for a soldier who had been enslaved as a youth, trained to the profession of warfare, converted to Islam under supervision of a master who was the ruler or a senior military officer, and registered as a member of the standing professional military force of the realm. Military slaves recruited from the Slavic countries, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and Africa served in the armies of the Abbasids, the Umayyads in Spain, and other Islamic dynasties. Turkic lands were a major source of slave labor. The preeminent reservoir of military slave manpower for Muslim courts was the region between the Nile and the Oxus Rivers. The Turks were particularly valued as military slaves for their physical and psychological strength. The Arabs admired their ethnic pride, their keen sense of solidarity, and their seemingly uncanny ability as mounted archers. Ottoman sultans, as had their predecessors, took military slaves from non-Muslim lands, especially south Russia and the Caucasus. They instituted a regular levy of slaves among the children of their Christian subjects in the Balkans and in Anatolia. In the years 1400 to 1700 Islamic leaders insisted upon a donation of children to become slaves in Islamic courts and cities. This child levy was called the devshirme. The most important use of the Mamluks was as mounted military warriors.
称马穆鲁克（mamluk）为奴隶兵并不恰当，因为在一些伊斯兰国家，奴隶新兵在接受军事训练后就获得了自由。在其他穆斯林国家，马穆鲁克（mamluk）在整个职业生涯中都处于正式奴役地位，无论他们获得多么崇高的军衔或职位。此外，完成训练的马穆鲁克（mamluk）也不能自由地离开他的主人。1250 年至 1517 年间统治埃及和叙利亚的马穆鲁克王朝的奴隶兵较为出名。
To call a Mamluk a slave soldier did not adequately describe him because in some Islamic states slave recruits gained freedom after military training. In other Muslim countries the Mamluks remained in a status of formal servitude throughout their careers, no matter how lofty the rank or office they attained. Furthermore, a Mamluk who had completed his training was not free to leave the service of his master. The most spectacular case of slave soldiers is that of the dynasty of Mamluks who ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517.
狩猎与娱乐
《古兰经》明确认可狩猎和驯化动物帮助捕猎：“（所有）美好事物对你来说都是合法的。你们训练了那些野兽和猛禽，把它们当作猎犬训练，你们把安拉所教给你们的东西教给它们，在你们对它说了安拉的名字之后”（Q6:4）。狩猎动物被赋予了“咬出血”的权利，即在第一道伤口上吸血，这就好比是一种屠宰仪式（dhabh）。猎鹰是阿拉伯人最重要的“猎兽”之一。猎鹰是中东的古老传统，可以追溯到几千年前，伊斯兰教之前的贝都因阿拉伯人经常用猎鹰捕猎兔子、野兔和鸭子等小动物，以补充食物。这一传统延续到伊斯兰时期，并在整个伊斯兰世界广泛传播。猎鹰活动开始与贵族联系在一起，穆斯林王子们会组织猎鹰狩猎队。
The Quran explicitly approves of hunting and of the use of animals to aid in capturing prey: “Lawful for you are foodstuffs good to eat and any [game] that, at your wish, is captured by beasts of prey which train as you do dogs, according to the method which Allah has taught you, after you have spoken the name of Allah over it.” (Q 6:4). The hunting animal was given the right to the “bleeding bite,” making the first wound to draw blood, which is likened to a ritual slaughter (dhabh). Falcons were among the most significant “beasts of prey” used by the Arabs. Falconry is an ancient tradition in the Middle East going back thousands of years. The pre-Islamic Bedouin Arabs routinely used falcons to hunt small animals, such as rabbits, hares, and ducks, needed to supplement their diet. This tradition continued in the Islamic period and became widespread throughout the Islamic world. Falconry became associated with the nobility, and Muslim princes would organize falcon hunting parties.
《天方夜谭》（《一千零一夜》）中有一个特别的故事，讲述了两个蒙古王子在沙漠中迷失方向，濒临饿死时发现了一只猎鹰。他们跟着猎鹰找到了猎物，捕获并驯服了猎鹰，猎鹰为他们捕猎，同时猎鹰也能分一杯羹。两年后，王子们得以平安回家，其中一位名叫铁木真的王子后来成为了伟大的蒙古征服者成吉思汗。
One remarkable story from The Arabian Nights relates how two Mongol princes became lost in the desert and were on the verge of starvation when they spied a falcon. They followed the bird to its quarry, captured it, and trained it to hunt for them, always providing their aviary helper with his fair share of the spoils. Two years later the princes were able to return home safe and sound, and one of them, whose name was Temoudjin, would go on to become the great Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan.
狩猎较大的动物，如羚羊、山羊、野驴、鸵鸟和令人垂涎的瞪羚，需要使用大型猎兽。猫科动物很受欢迎，尤其是猎豹，因为它具有传说中的敏捷和见血不惊的能力。波斯人、蒙古人和印度人有驯养猎豹为其狩猎的悠久传统，他们将这一技能传到了阿拉伯半岛、叙利亚和伊拉克。在阿拔斯王朝、法蒂玛王朝和马穆鲁克王朝，猎豹是威望和权力的象征，猎豹会在官方游行队伍中巡游。在狩猎毛皮类动物、鹤、鹧鸪和其他大型鸟类时，赤褐色的猞猁狞猫是首选的猎兽。
Hunting for larger animals, such as the antelope, ibex, wild ass, ostrich, and highly coveted gazelle, required the use of larger beasts of prey. Felines were popular, especially the cheetah, because of its legendary swiftness and its ability to maintain its composure at the sight of blood. Persians, Mongols, and Indians had a long tradition of taming cheetahs to hunt for them, a skill that they passed on to the Arab Muslims in the Arabian Peninsula, Syria, and Iraq. Among the Abbasids, Fatimids, and Mamluks the cheetah was a symbol of prestige and power, and cheetahs paraded in their official processions. For hunting fur animals and cranes, partridges, and other large birds, the russet-colored lynx caracal was the predator animal of choice.
据说哈里发欧麦尔·伊本·哈塔卜（Umar ibn al-Khattab）曾嘱咐穆斯林名人训练他们的儿子掌握游泳、射击和骑马的技能。穆斯林王公贵族非常喜欢狩猎（tard），他们组织狩猎队，大伙骑着马，在猛兽的陪伴下，用弓箭、弩和吹箭筒射杀猎物。骑马狩猎有助于训练年轻王子参与战争的必要技能。赛马和赛骆驼也有类似的作用，可以锻炼贵族们的体力和骑乘速度。由于蒙古和土耳其士兵引进了奔驰速度更快的新品种马匹，穆斯林的战争技能得到了提高。蒙古人和土耳其人在射箭方面无与伦比的天赋尤其令人钦佩，他们会在宫廷中举办射箭表演，给外国政要留下深刻印象。
Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab is said to have enjoined Muslim notables to train their sons in the skills of swimming, sharpshooting, and horseback riding. Muslim princes and nobles cherished the chase (tard) and organized hunting parties in which they rode out on horseback, accompanied by beasts of prey, and used bows and arrows, crossbows, and blowpipes to bring down their quarry. Hunting on horseback helped train young princes in the necessary skills to engage in warfare. Horse racing and camel racing served a similar function, enabling notables to build up their strength and rapidity. Muslim skills in warfare benefited from the introduction of new swifter breeds of horses from Mongol and Turkish soldiers. Mongols and Turks were especially admired for their unmatched talent in archery and would stage exhibitions of their dexterity at court to impress foreign dignitaries.
马球是中亚和伊朗国王和王子们最喜爱的运动，大约起源于公元前六世纪。中世纪波斯细密画和彩绘手稿（“发光手稿”、“泥金手稿”，文本装饰有边框和微型插图等华丽内容）证明了马球在波斯宫廷文化中的重要性和受欢迎程度。10 世纪的波斯诗人和史诗作家 哈基姆·阿波尔-卡西姆·菲尔多西·杜西在其著名的《列王纪》（Shahnameh）中描述了大量马球比赛。其中一个引人入胜的故事讲述了一位国王和他的妃子在马球场上的爱情故事。国王和他的男性同伴与王妃及其女伴进行了一场比赛，这说明波斯宫廷中的女性也接受过马球训练。
Polo was the preeminent sport of kings and princes in Central Asia and Iran, where the sport is believed to have originated circa the sixth century B.C.E. Medieval Persian miniature art and manuscript illumination attest to the importance and popularity of polo in Persian court culture. The renowned 10th-century Persian poet and epic writer Abu l-Qasim al-Firdawsi describes numerous polo matches in his famous Shahnameh (The Persian book of kings). One intriguing tale sets the scene of a love story between a king and his consort on a polo field. The king and his male companions played a match against the royal consort and her female attendees, illustrating that the women of the Persian court were also trained in the game.
宗教与食物
清真（halal）与哈拉姆（haram）
伊斯兰教在区分食物上，与犹太教在区分犹太洁食（在希伯来语中，“kosher”的意思是“合适”或“适当”）和非犹太洁食方面相似。《古兰经》规定了穆斯林允许食用（“清真”）和禁止食用（“哈拉姆”）的食物（《古兰经》7:156-157）。伊斯兰教与犹太教法和基督教习俗不同，它完全禁止饮用葡萄酒（khamr）和蒸馏酒精饮料（nabidh），他们认为这些饮品会迷惑人的心智，使人误入歧途。《古兰经》中有一节经文解释说，真主将恶魔投入猪体内，因此穆斯林（和犹太人一样）被禁止食用猪肉和以猪肉为原料的产品，如猪油和明胶。《古兰经》还沿用了犹太人禁止食用动物血液的规定。肉食动物不得食用，无论是四足哺乳动物（狮子、老虎、猎豹等）还是猛禽（猎鹰、鹰、老鹰、秃鹫等）。《古兰经》还禁止那些处于仪式纯洁状态的人，如麦加朝圣者，杀死或食用野味（问 5:94-95），尽管他们可以吃鱼。
Islam resembles the Jewish tradition in its distinction between kosher and nonkosher foods. The Quran designates the foods that are permitted (halal) and forbidden (haram) for Muslims (Q 7:156–157). Islam differs from Jewish law and Christian custom in its total prohibition of wine (khamr) and distilled alcoholic beverages (nabidh), owing to the belief that they confuse the mind and lead people astray. A Quranic verse explains that God cast a demon into a pig, and for this reason Muslims (as are Jews) are forbidden pork and pork-based products, such as lard and gelatin. The Quran also follows the Jewish prohibition of consuming animal blood. Carnivorous beasts of prey may not be consumed, whether four-footed mammals (lions, tigers, cheetahs, etc.) or raptors (falcons, hawks, eagles, vultures, etc.). The Quran also forbids those in a state of ritual purity, such as pilgrims to Mecca, to kill or eat game (Q 5:94–95), although they may eat fish.
动物的死亡方式决定了是否可以食用。自然死亡、摔死、被撞死或被野兽咬死的动物不能食用，因为无法确定动物是如何死亡的。这里有一个实际的健康问题，因为死去的动物可能死于传染病。此外，由于不知道动物是如何被杀死的，也有可能是以不合法的方式杀死的。与狩猎时“咬出血”以吸第一滴血的习俗类似，宰杀动物也具有献祭的性质，因为必须按照规定的方式进行才能被视为“清真”。按照亚伯拉罕差点献祭其子以实玛利（犹太教-基督教传统中的以撒）的范例，屠夫必须用锋利的刀子干净利落地割开牲畜的喉咙，同时向真主感恩祈祷。
The way an animal has died determines whether eating it is halal. An animal that has died of apparently natural causes, a fall, or a blow or been killed by a wild animal may not be eaten because there is no way of knowing certainly how the animal died. There is a practical health concern here, for a dead animal may have died of a contagious disease. Furthermore, not knowing how an animal was killed raises the possibility that it was killed in an illegitimate way. Similar to the hunting custom of the “bleeding bite” to draw the first drops of blood, the slaughter of animals had a sacrificial character because it had to be performed in the prescribed way to be considered halal. Following the paradigm of Abraham’s near sacrifice of his son Ishmael (Isaac in the Judeo-Christian tradition), the animal had to have its throat slit with a sharp knife in one clean, swift blow while the butcher uttered a prayer of thanksgiving to God.
由于穆斯林被禁止食用任何以“异教”神或女神的名义献祭的动物，因此真主（安拉）之名的发音和屠宰的仪式程序至关重要。在多元文化的城市伊斯兰社会中，这意味着穆斯林不能购买由基督徒或犹太人进行过献祭仪式的肉类。塞维利亚的穆塔西布·伊本·阿卜杜恩提醒他的社区，“犹太屠夫不得为穆斯林献祭牲畜。犹太人应该有自己专门的屠宰台，以照顾自己的社区”（Ibn Abdun 152）。
The pronunciation of the name of God, Allah, and the ritualistic procedure of the slaughter were crucial since Muslims were banned from eating any animal that may have been sacrificed in the name of some “pagan” god or goddess. In multicultural urban Islamic societies this meant that Muslims could not purchase meat that had been sacrificed by Christians or Jews. The muhtasib Ibn Abdun of Seville reminded his community that “no Jewish butcher should sacrifice an animal for a Muslim. Jews should have their own special butchering table to tend to their own community” (Ibn Abdun 152).
饮食与道德
在中世纪穆斯林的道德论著和布道中，吃“禁忌食物”和喝酒被列为“十宗罪”之首的情况并不少见。13 世纪一位匿名的西班牙穆斯林传道者将 “邪恶”的食物和酒列为他的十大罪状之首，因为它们是追随个人欲望的缩影，使人不太可能遵守伊斯兰教的其他规定。15 世纪的一位传道者也表达了类似的观点，他将酒列为所有罪恶的总和，是所有道德败坏行为的关键。饮酒的诱惑肯定是巨大的，这可以从被称为“酒歌”（alkhamriyyat）的诗歌亚流派的出现得到证明。此外，在犹太教徒和基督教徒居住的伊斯兰城市中，酒的诱惑总是近在咫尺。对饮酒者的典型斥责就是指责他们的行为像基督徒和犹太人。另一方面，《古兰经》将葡萄酒列为天堂的美食之一，被选中的人将能大量享用（Q37：44-45；Q47：15-16）。禁酒令和禁食令背后的心理与中世纪基督教关于贪食的思想有些不同。在基督教的想象中，贪食是与欲望和性联系在一起的；而在穆斯林的想象中，食用真主所禁止的食物代表着一种肆意违背或反抗真主律法的倾向。
In the medieval Muslim moralistic treatises and sermons it was not uncommon to find eating the “forbidden foods” and wine at the top of the list of the “ten reprehensible sins.” A 13thcentury anonymous preacher of Muslim Spain placed the “evil” foods and wine at the top of his list of deadly sins because they epitomized following one’s own desires, making one less likely to follow any of the other Islamic prescriptions. A 15th-century preacher expressed a similar idea when he singled out wine as the sum of all sins and the key to all moral depravities. The temptation to drink wine must surely have been great, as attested by the emergence of a subgenre of poetry called “wine odes,” alkhamriyyat, devoted to the joys of consuming the beverage and lauding its inebriating effects. Moreover, the temptation was always close at hand in Islamic cities where Jewish and Christian communities also resided. A typical reprimand against those drinking wine was to accuse them of acting like Christians and Jews. On the other hand, the Quran includes wine as one of the delights of paradise, which the elect will be able to enjoy in abundance (Q 37:44–45; Q 47:15–16). The psychology behind the prohibition of wine drinking and forbidden food in particular differs somewhat from that influencing medieval Christian ideas about gluttony. In the Christian imagination gluttony was linked with lust and sex; in the Muslim imagination consuming what God has forbidden represented a propensity to wanton disobedience or rebellion against any of God’s laws.
守斋与宴饮
斋月斋戒是伊斯兰教规定的五大支柱之一。斋戒被认为是欢乐的时刻，也是对古兰经最初启示的感恩。斋月每天从日出到日落，穆斯林都要禁食、禁饮、禁烟和禁交。斋戒规定适用于所有 10 岁以上身心健康的穆斯林。年幼儿童、孕妇或哺乳期妇女、老人、体弱者、精神病患者、吉哈德（Jihad，shengzhan）士兵和长途旅行者可免于斋戒。日落时分，穆斯林聚集在家中诵读晚祷，然后按照先知穆罕默德的习俗（Sunnah，圣行），用椰枣和甜果汁庆祝开斋（iftar）。之后，真正的盛宴开始了，主菜通常包括各种肉类，配以米饭和蔬菜。最后是一系列烘焙甜点，通常是灌满蜂蜜或糖浆、开心果、松子、杏仁、无花果干或其他水果的糕点。饭后，精神特别虔诚的人可能会回到清真寺进行斋月期间的特别祈祷（tarawih）。和今天一样，当时的大多数人到凌晨都不睡觉，在入睡前吃清淡的黎明前餐（suhur）。典型的斋饭包括山羊奶酪、西红柿、蚕豆或水果。
Fasting during the month of Ramadan was one of the prescribed Five Pillars of Islam. The fast was considered a time of joy and a celebration of thanksgiving for the initial revelation of the Quran, which occurred during that month. Every day between sunrise and sunset, Muslims abstained from eating, drinking, smoking, and having sexual intercourse. The fast was prescribed for all Muslims over the age of 10 of sound mind and body. Very young children, pregnant or nursing mothers, the very old, the infirm, the mentally ill, soldiers fighting jihad, and long-distance travelers were exempted from the requirement. At sunset Muslims gathered together in their homes and recited the evening prayer, after which they celebrated the breaking of the fast (iftar) with dates and a sweet juice in accordance with the prophet Muhammad’s custom (Sunna). After this the real feast began, and main dishes typically included various meats served with rice and vegetables. The meal would be rounded off with an array of baked desserts, usually pastries filled with honey or syrup, pistachios, pine nuts, almonds, or dried figs or other fruits. After the meal the especially spiritually devout might return to the mosque for the special prayers (tarawih) that were performed during Ramadan. Most people then as today stayed awake into the early hours of the morning to take the lighter predawn meal (suhur) before going to sleep. A typical suhur consisted of goat’s cheese, tomatoes, fava beans, or fruit.
穆斯林被教导，肉体上的斋戒与精神上的“吉哈德”（奋斗）理念是相辅相成的，“吉哈德”的目标是战胜自我，特别是战胜追随自己的欲望而不是真主欲望的诱惑。因此，穆斯林同时要在精神上禁食，抵制罪恶或有害的思想、言语或行为，并通过在清真寺多做祷告、践行善行和额外的慈善捐赠，以及真诚地向真主忏悔所犯下的任何罪行，来重申他们对真主的承诺。肉体和精神斋戒中隐含的自我否定使其成为对过去罪孽的赎罪行为。事实上，许多教法手册都明确指出，在清真寺进行斋戒和夜祷可以赎罪。
Muslims were taught that the physical fast goes hand in hand with the idea of a spiritual “jihad” against the self, specifically against the temptation to follow one’s own desires instead of what Allah desires. Thus, Muslims simultaneously spiritually fast against sinful or harmful thoughts, speech, or actions and renew their commitment to Allah by spending more time in prayer at the mosque, practicing acts of kindness and extra charitable giving, and sincerely turning to Allah in repentance for any sins committed. The self-denial implied in the physical and spiritual fasts made them acts of atonement for past sins. In fact, many fiqh manuals explicitly stated that fasting and night prayers performed in the mosque atone for sins.
除了遵守规定的斋月斋戒外，许多穆斯林还进行超度性斋戒，以此来表达他们的灵性和增加他们的虔诚。这种自愿斋戒在所谓的功修时期（fadail awqat）最为流行，因为人们相信安拉最有可能回应祈祷或接受忏悔，或者根据圣训传统，先知穆罕默德也曾自愿斋戒。有一段圣训说，先知说：“斋月是真主的月份，舍尔邦月是我的月份”。因此，舍尔邦月是流行的自愿斋戒月。一年中的第一个月即穆哈兰姆月也是如此，尤其是在第十天即阿舒拉节之前的前十天。阿舒拉节与犹太人的赎罪日（赎罪日）相对应，穆罕默德也通过斋戒和祈祷来纪念赎罪日。
Besides complying with the prescribed fast of Ramadan, many Muslims undertook supererogatory fasting as a means of expressing their spirituality and increasing their devotion. Such voluntary fasts were most popular during the so-called meritorious times (fadail awqat), when it was believed that Allah was most likely to answer prayers or accept repentance, or when, according to the Hadith traditions, the prophet Muhammad also fasted voluntarily. One Hadith states that the Prophet said, “Ramadan is the month of God and Shaban is my month.” Hence the month of Shaban was a popular month of voluntary fasting. So was the first month of the year, Muharram, especially the first 10 days leading up to the 10th day, the Festival of Ashura. Ashura corresponds to the Jewish Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), which Muhammad also observed by fasting and prayer.
在苏菲派神秘主义者和虔诚男女的精神传记中，充满了将斋戒作为朝向真主的精神升华的一部分的轶事。一位妇女只吃乞讨得来的食物，另一位妇女只吃垃圾堆里的残羹剩饭，以表示她们完全依靠真主维持生计；一个男人和他的家人几乎只靠无花果维生；另一位斋戒者只吃苦菜。不那么极端的斋戒形式包括禁食某些油脂物质，如油、黄油或肉。住在旅店里的苏菲主义者们通常每天只吃两顿饭。通常情况下，膳食比较清淡；面包、粥和汤等主食会辅以水果或蔬菜。肉类、米饭、豆类、干坚果和糕点等较为昂贵的食物则保留在周五和节庆日。同时，《古兰经》中有许多经文将食物列为神的恩赐和祝福（如 Q 14:32、16:74、17:72、53:24），这种将食物视为祝福的观念也体现在苏菲派圣人的神奇能力中，他们创造食物奇迹的能力被视为神恩的标志。有趣的是，这些神迹的类型学与耶稣的神迹相似，特别是他仅用五个饼和两条鱼就喂饱了 5000 人(Mt. 14:15–21 and parallels)。
The spiritual biographies of Sufi mystics and pious men and women are filled with anecdotes that incorporate fasting as part of the spiritual ascent toward Allah. A woman only ate what she received from begging as a show of her utter reliance upon Allah for her subsistence. Another only ate the scraps found in a garbage heap. A man and his family survived virtually only on figs. Another fasted by eating nothing but bitter herbs. Less extremist forms of fasting included the abstention from certain fatty substances such as oil, butter, or meat. Sufi communities residing in lodges usually limited themselves to two meals a day. Normally, meals were meager; staple foods such as bread, porridge, and soup would be supplemented by fruit or vegetables. More costly meals featuring meat, rice, legumes, dried nuts, and pastries were reserved for Fridays and feast days. At the same time, numerous Quranic verses count food among the divine gifts and blessings (e.g., Q 14:32, 16:74, 17:72, 53:24), and this idea of food as blessing is also seen in the miraculous powers of Sufi saints whose capacity to produce food miracles is taken as a sign of their divine favor. It is interesting to observe that the typology of these miracles resembles those ascribed to Jesus, particularly his feeding a crowd of 5,000 people with only five loaves of bread and two fish (Mt. 14:15–21 and parallels).
分发食物是统治者和富人展示其慷慨和大度以及履行伊斯兰教施舍规定的一种方式。统治者通常会举办大型豪华宴会，作为庆祝宗教节日的一部分，并向穷人分发食物，以示慈善。在斋月期间，富人会向穷人提供“慈悲桌”上的食物，这样他们就可以庆祝夜间开斋和结束斋月的盛大节日——开斋节（Id al-Fitr）。
Finally, the distribution of food was one way that rulers and the wealthy could demonstrate their generosity and largesse and fulfill the Islamic prescriptions of almsgiving. Rulers typically hosted large and lavish banquets as part of the celebration of religious festivals and distributed food to the poor as an act of charity. During Ramadan the wealthy supplied the poor with “mercy tables” of food so that they could celebrate the nightly breaking of the fast and the great holiday of Id al-Fitr that ends the month of Ramadan.
《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）
By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones
未完待续！
