【简译】法国宗教战争（French Wars of Religion）

问 题 与 解 答

什么是法国宗教战争？

           答：法国宗教战争（1562-1598）是法国天主教徒和新教徒之间的八次冲突；天主教后来成为主导宗教。

是什么引发了法国宗教战争？

          答：法国宗教战争始于1562年的瓦西大屠杀，当时天主教徒谋杀了新教的教友。

 是什么结束了法国宗教战争？

          答：法国亨利四世于1593年皈依天主教，并于1598年颁布《南特敕令》，从而结束了法国的宗教战争。

有多少人在法国宗教战争中死亡？

          答：据估计，可能有多达400万人死于法国的宗教战争。

The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598) were a series of eight conflicts between Protestant and Catholic factions in France lasting 36 years and concluding with the Protestant King Henry IV (r. 1589-1610) converting to Catholicism in the interests of peace. Although Protestant forces won the final battles, Catholicism triumphed, and France remained a predominantly Catholic nation.

          法国宗教战争（1562-1598年）是法国新教和天主教派别之间的一系列冲突（八次），持续了36年，最后以新教国王亨利四世（1589-1610年）为了和平而皈依天主教结束。虽然新教部队在最后的战斗中获胜，但天主教取得了胜利，法国仍然是一个以天主教为主的国家。

法国宗教战争的八个日期：

1st War: 1562-1563

2nd War: 1567-1568

3rd War: 1568-1570

4th War: 1572-1573

5th War: 1574-1576

6th War: 1576-1577

7th War: 1579-1580

8th War (War of the Three Henrys三亨利之战): 1585-1589

Armed conflict continued through 1598 when it was concluded by the Edict of Nantes.

          武装冲突一直持续到1598年，当时通过《南特敕令》而结束。

Tensions had been rising between Protestants and Catholics since 1534 but the religious and political situation worsened after Henry II (r. 1547-1559) died from an injury. His son, Francois II (Francis II, r. 1559-1560), crowned king at the age of 15, had been married to Mary, Queen of Scots (l. 1542-1587) who was the niece of Francis, Duke of Guise (l. 1519-1563) and his brother Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine (l. 1524-1574). Although Francis II was of age to rule on his own, his mother, Catherine de ‘Medici (l. 1519-1589) encouraged the Guise brothers to assume control as Francis II was inexperienced and sickly.

          自1534年以来，新教徒和天主教徒之间的关系一直很紧张，但在亨利二世（r. 1547-1559）因伤去世后，宗教和政治局势更加恶化。他的儿子弗朗索瓦二世（Francis II, r. 1559-1560）在15岁时加冕为国王，与苏格兰女王玛丽（l. 1542-1587）结婚，后者是吉斯公爵弗朗索瓦（l. 1519-1563）及其兄弟洛林红衣主教查理（l. 1524-1574）的侄女。虽然弗朗西斯二世已经到了独立统治的年龄，但他的母亲凯瑟琳·德·美第奇（l. 1519-1589）鼓励吉斯兄弟掌握政权，因为弗朗西斯二世缺乏经验，而且从小体弱多病。

The House of Guise, devoutly Catholic, then exercised the power behind the throne and were hostile to the efforts of the Huguenots (French Protestants) who were advancing their vision in France. In March 1560, a group of Huguenots tried to kidnap Francis II to remove him from the influence of the Guise brothers. The plot, known as the Amboise Conspiracy, was discovered and anyone thought to be involved, as well as over 1,000 other Huguenots, were executed. In retaliation, Huguenots began vandalizing Catholic churches and rising tensions led to the Massacre of Vassy in March of 1562, in which Catholics killed more Protestants, starting the first war.

          虔诚的天主教徒吉斯家族，在当时控制着王位的权力，并对在法国推进其愿景的胡格诺派（法国新教徒）的努力充满敌意。1560年3月，一群胡格诺派教徒试图绑架弗朗西斯二世，使他脱离吉斯兄弟的影响。这个被称为安布瓦兹阴谋的做法被人告发，结果任何被认为参与其中的人以及1000多名胡格诺教徒被处决了。作为报复，胡格诺派开始破坏天主教堂，日益紧张的局势导致了1562年3月的瓦西大屠杀，其中天主教徒杀死了更多的新教徒，这导致了第一次战争的爆发。

Conflict continued, with periods of armed peace between hostilities, until 1598 when King Henry IV, recognizing that France would never accept a Protestant king, converted to Catholicism (allegedly, with the famous line, “Paris is well worth a Mass”). His Edict of Nantes (1598), granting rights to Protestants in France while maintaining Catholic sovereignty, ended the French Wars of Religion (which had cost approximately 4 million lives) but did not address the underlying tensions which continued to erupt throughout the next century.

          冲突持续不断，但在敌对行动之间有一些武装和平时期；直到1598年，国王亨利四世认识到法国永远不会接受一个新教国王，于是皈依了天主教（据称，他有一句著名的话："巴黎很值得做一次弥撒"）。他的《南特敕令》（1598年）在保持天主教主权的同时，给予法国新教徒权利，结束了法国的宗教战争（大约400万人丧生），但并没有解决在下一个世纪继续爆发的潜在紧张局势。

标 语 牌 与 迫 害 事 件

The Reformation launched by Martin Luther (l. 1483-1546) in 1517 had reached France by 1521 but was not as enthusiastically received as it had been in the Germanic territories of the Holy Roman Empire where Luther and his followers were at work. Francois I, a devout Catholic, became king in 1515 but refrained from persecuting Protestant activists mainly because of his sister, Marguerite de Navarre (l. 1492-1549), who was sympathetic to the cause and used her position as Queen of Navarre and influence over Francois I to protect them. Marguerite also intervened to reduce tensions by mediating between Catholics and Protestants to keep the peace.

          马丁·路德（1483-1546）于1517年发起的宗教改革，到1521年已经传到了法国，但却没有像路德及其追随者在神圣罗马帝国的日耳曼领土上那样受到热烈欢迎。虔诚的天主教徒弗朗索瓦一世于1515年成为国王，但他没有迫害新教活动家，这主要是因为他的妹妹玛格丽特·德·纳瓦拉（1492-1549年）同情这一事业，并利用她作为纳瓦拉女王的地位和对弗朗索瓦一世的影响力来保护他们。玛格丽特还通过在天主教徒和新教徒之间进行调停来维持和平，以缓解紧张的局势。

Tensions between the two factions were present, but controlled, until October 17-18, 1534, when placards denouncing the Catholic Mass were publicly posted in Blois, Orleans, Paris, Rouen, and Tours – with one even appearing on the door of Francois I’s bedroom. Although this event, known as the Affair of the Placards, has been traditionally attributed to the Protestant Reformer Antoine Marcourt, some scholars believe it may have been organized by conservative Catholic authorities who had grown tired of Francois I’s leniency toward what they considered heresy and wanted to force him to act.

          两派之间的紧张关系一直存在，但得到了有效控制，直到1534年10月17-18日，谴责天主教弥撒的标语牌在布卢瓦、奥尔良、巴黎、鲁昂和图尔公开张贴——其中一张甚至出现在弗朗索瓦一世的卧室门口。尽管这一事件被称为 "标语牌事件"，传统上被认为是新教改革者安托万·马库尔（Antoine Marcourt）所为，但一些学者认为，它可能是由保守的天主教当局组织的，他们已经厌倦了弗朗索瓦一世对（他们认为的）异端的宽大处理，想迫使他采取进一步行动。

Francois I did so by initiating the persecution of Protestants and ignoring his sister’s pleas for restraint. Many Protestants, including Reformer John Calvin (l. 1509-1564), left France at this time but those who remained were prohibited from gathering, preaching, or even casually discussing their views. Persecution under Francois I culminated in the Massacre of Merindol in 1545 in which thousands of the heretical sect of the Waldensians, who supported reform, were slaughtered and the survivors arrested and enslaved.

          弗朗索瓦一世通过发起对新教徒的迫害，并无视他姐姐要求克制的请求，做到了这一点。许多新教徒，包括改革者约翰·加尔文（ 1509-1564），在这个时候离开了法国，但那些留下来的人被禁止集会、布道，甚至是随意讨论他们的观点。弗朗索瓦一世统治下的迫害在1545年的梅林多尔大屠杀中达到了顶峰，在这次屠杀中，数千名支持改革的异端教派瓦尔登塞人被屠杀，幸存者被逮捕并被奴役。

Francois I died in 1547 and was succeeded by his son Henry II who continued his policies. There was no restraining influence over Henry, as Marguerite de Navarre had been with Francois I, but his persecutions only drove Protestantism underground where it took hold and gained further support, even among members of the noble class such as Louis de Bourbon, Prince of Conde (l. 1530-1569) and Jeanne d’Albret (l. 1528-1572), daughter of Marguerite de Navarre, and Queen of Navarre after 1555.

          弗朗索瓦一世于1547年去世，他的儿子亨利二世继承了他的政策。亨利没有像玛格丽特·德·纳瓦拉对弗朗索瓦一世那样受到约束，但他的迫害只会使新教转入地下，并在那里得到进一步的支持，甚至在贵族阶层的成员中，如康德亲王路易·德·波旁（l. 1530-1569）和玛格丽特·德·纳瓦拉的女儿让娜·阿尔布雷特（l. 1528-1572），以及1555年后的纳瓦拉女王。

Henry II died in 1559 from an accident incurred in a jousting match and his son, Francois II, became king at the age of 15 but, as he was inexperienced and often ill, his mother, Catherine de Medici, asked the Guise brothers to assume control and instruct the young king. Francis and Charles of the House of Guise were already involved with the royal court since their sister, Mary of Guise (l. 1515-1560), had earlier arranged the marriage of her daughter, Mary, Queen of Scots, to Francois II. The Guise brothers quickly isolated the king from others at court, including Louis de Bourbon and the Admiral of France, Gaspard II de Coligny (l. 1519-1572) among others.

          亨利二世于1559年死于一场比武比赛中发生的意外，他的儿子弗朗索瓦二世在15岁时成为了国王，但由于缺乏经验，而且经常生病，他的母亲凯瑟琳·德·美第奇要求吉斯兄弟承担起控制和指导年轻国王的任务。吉斯家族的弗朗西斯和查尔斯已经与王室打成一片，因为他们的姐姐吉斯的玛丽（1515-1560）早些时候曾安排她的女儿苏格兰女王玛丽与弗朗索瓦二世结婚。吉斯兄弟很快就将国王与宫廷中的其他人隔离开来，包括路易·德·波旁和法国海军上将加斯帕德·科利尼（Gaspard II de Coligny）（1519-1572）等人。

昂 布 瓦 兹 阴 谋 和 瓦 西 大 屠 杀

This situation led to the Amboise Conspiracy of 1560 in which a group of Protestants planned to kidnap Francois II to remove him from the Guise’s influence. The plot was discovered and all those suspected of taking part in it were arrested and executed. Louis de Bourbon was among these and was slated for execution when Francois II died. His brother, Charles IX (r. 1560-1574) took the throne and his mother assumed direct control over him, sidelining the House of Guise and freeing Louis de Bourbon. In December 1560, Jeanne d’Albret publicly declared in favor of the Reformation, converting to Calvinism and in 1561, Catherine de Medici appointed her Catholic husband Antoine de Bourbon (l. 1518-1562, brother of Louis) Lieutenant General of France.

          这种情况导致了1560年的安布瓦兹阴谋，一群新教徒计划绑架弗朗索瓦二世，使他脱离吉斯家族的影响。阴谋被发现后，所有涉嫌参与阴谋的人都被逮捕和处决。路易·德·波旁也在其中，当弗朗索瓦二世去世时，他也被预定为处决对象。他的弟弟查理九世（1560-1574年）登上了王位，他的母亲直接控制了他，让吉斯家族靠边站，并释放了路易·波旁。1560年12月，贞德公开宣布支持宗教改革，改信加尔文教；1561年，凯瑟琳·德·美第奇任命她的天主教丈夫安托万·德·波旁（1518-1562，路易的兄弟）为法国中将。

Jeanne d’Albret outlawed Catholicism in Navarre while her husband was now responsible for controlling the simmering tensions between the traditional faith of France and what was seen as the heretical movement of the Protestants. The tension this caused in their marriage mirrored that of the country generally at this time which erupted in March 1562 in the Massacre of Vassy. Francis, Duke of Guise, was en route to Paris and near to the village of Vassy when he heard church bells ringing at a time when no Catholic Mass would be called. He sent his men to disperse what he recognized as a Protestant service and, when they met resistance, the massacre began leaving at least 50 Protestant worshippers dead. This event is considered the beginning of the French Wars of Religion.

          贞德在纳瓦拉宣布天主教为非法的，而她的丈夫现在负责控制法国的传统信仰和被视为异端的新教徒运动之间一触即发的矛盾。这在他们的婚姻中造成的紧张关系反映了当时全国的紧张关系，这种紧张关系在1562年3月的瓦西大屠杀中爆发了。吉斯公爵弗朗西斯在前往巴黎的途中，在靠近瓦西村的地方听到教堂的钟声，而此时天主教徒不会做弥撒。他派人去驱散他认为是新教的仪式，当他们遇到抵抗时，大屠杀开始了，至少有50名新教礼拜者死亡。这一事件被认为是法国宗教战争的开始。

1563 - 1570 年 的 前 三 次 战 争

Both factions quickly blamed the other for the killings in propaganda campaigns which only fueled tensions. Louis de Bourbon seized Orleans in April 1562, declaring it now a Protestant city, and this encouraged other Huguenot leaders elsewhere to do the same. The first war raged for almost a year, during which Antoine de Bourbon was killed at Rouen and Francis, Duke of Guise was assassinated. The war was ended in March 1563 by the Edict of Amboise, brokered by Catherine de Medici and supported by Jeanne d’Albret, but the underlying causes of the conflict were not addressed.

          两派都迅速将杀戮归咎于对方，其宣传活动只会加剧紧张局势。1562年4月，路易·德·波旁占领了奥尔良，宣布它现在是一个新教城市，这鼓励了其他地方的胡格诺派领导人也这样做。第一场战争持续了将近一年，在此期间，安托万·德·波旁在鲁昂被杀，吉斯公爵弗朗西斯被暗杀。1563年3月，在凯瑟琳·德·美第奇的斡旋和让娜·德·阿尔布雷特的支持下，安布瓦兹诏书结束了战争，但冲突的根本原因并没有得到解决。

Both factions remained armed and hostile to each other between 1563-1567, only working together to drive the English (who had been invited by the Huguenots to help them) out of the port of Le Havre. The second war broke out in 1567 due to the Huguenot fears of Catholic reprisals against them for the first war and, although a peace was concluded in March 1568, it did not last long, and the third war was launched that summer. Battles and various atrocities continued throughout 1569 with many killed on both sides, including Louis de Bourbon, prince of Conde, who was executed after surrendering at the Battle of Jarnac in March 1569.

          在1563-1567年间，两派都保持着武装并相互敌视，只是在将英国人（受胡格诺派邀请帮助他们）赶出勒阿弗尔港时才有所合作。由于胡格诺派担心天主教对第一次战争进行报复，第二次战争于1567年爆发了；虽然1568年3月达成了和平协议，但并没有持续多久，第三次战争于当年夏天爆发。整个1569年，战斗和各种暴行持续不断，双方都有很多人被杀，包括康德王子路易·德·波旁，他在1569年3月的雅尔纳克战役中投降后被处决。

In the third war, Jeanne d’Albret, who had helped finance the first two, was actively leading the Huguenot forces as spiritual figurehead, propagandist, and financier. She again enlisted the aid of Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England (r. 1558-1603) in the cause and, with the help of Admiral de Coligny, made the city of La Rochelle a Huguenot stronghold. Neither faction could decisively defeat the other and the war dragged on until August 1570.

          在第三次战争中，曾资助过前两次战争的让娜·阿尔布雷特（Jeanne d'Albret）作为精神领袖、宣传员和资助者，积极领导胡格诺派军队。她再次争取新教的英国女王伊丽莎白一世（Elizabeth I）（1558-1603年）的援助，并在海军上将德·卡里尼的帮助下，将拉罗谢尔市变成了胡格诺派的据点。两派都没能决定性地击败对方，战争一直拖到1570年8月。

Hostilities ended with the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, negotiated by d’Albret and Catherine de Medici, in 1570 and, in a gesture of reconciliation of the two factions, the women agreed their children – d’Albret’s Protestant son Henry of Navarre (later King Henry IV of France, l. 1553-1610 and de Medici’s Catholic daughter Margaret of Valois (l. 1553-1615) should marry. The marriage was set for August 1572 but d’Albret would never see it, dying of natural causes in June 1572.

          1570年，由阿尔布雷和凯瑟琳·德·美第奇谈判达成的《圣日耳曼-昂莱和约》结束了敌对状态，作为两派和解的一种姿态，两位女士同意他们的孩子——阿尔布雷的新教儿子纳瓦拉的亨利（后来的法国国王亨利四世，1553-1610年）和德·美第奇的天主教女儿瓦卢斯的玛格丽特（1553-1615年）结婚。这场婚礼定于1572年8月举行，但阿尔布雷特没有看到它，他于1572年6月自然死亡。

圣 巴 塞 洛 缪 日 大 屠 杀 和 第 四 次 战 争 : 1572 - 1573年

The wedding of Henry and Margaret drew large crowds, Protestant and Catholic, to Paris in August and tensions were running high already when, on 22 August 1572, Admiral de Coligny was shot in the street by an unknown assailant. De Coligny was only wounded and was brought to his apartments for care but Henry I, Duke of Guise (l. 1550-1588, son of Francis, Duke of Guise), argued for a preemptive strike against Protestants before they could begin reprisals for de Coligny.

          亨利和玛格丽特的婚礼在8月吸引了大批新教徒和天主教徒来到巴黎，1572年8月22日，海军上将德·卡里尼在街上被一名身份不明的袭击者射杀，局势变得非常紧张。德·卡里尼只是受了伤，被带到他的公寓接受治疗，但吉斯公爵亨利一世（1550-1588年，吉斯公爵弗朗西斯之子）主张在新教徒开始报复德·卡里尼之前，对他们进行先发制人的打击。

On 24 August, Henry I’s supporters broke into de Coligny’s apartments, killed him, and threw his body out of a window, launching the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre which raged for the next five days and, elsewhere, for months, resulting in the deaths of thousands of Protestants and the fourth war. This conflict was concluded with the Edict of Boulogne in 1573 which granted immunity to Protestants for past “crimes against the state” but severely restricted their freedom of religious expression.

          8月24日，亨利一世的支持者闯入德·卡里基纳的公寓，将他杀死，并将他的尸体扔出窗外，发起了圣巴托洛缪日大屠杀，这场屠杀持续了五天，在其他地方则持续了数月，导致成千上万的新教徒死亡和第四次战争。这场冲突以1573年的《布洛涅敕令》结束，该敕令对新教徒过去的 "反国家罪 "给予豁免，但严格限制他们的宗教表达自由。

第 五 次 至 第 七 次 战 争：1574 - 1580年

Charles IX’s brother Henry, Duke of Anjou (the future Henry III of France, l. 1551-1589) had been elected King of Poland-Lithuania in 1573 but, when Charles IX died in 1574, returned to France and was crowned king. By this time, his younger brother, Francois, Duke of Anjou and Alencon (l. 1555-1584), had secretly sided with the Huguenots and, in 1575, joined the forces of Henry I de Bourbon (l. 1552-1588, son of Louis de Bourbon) and Henry of Navarre in the south. France was now divided between Catholic-controlled territories in the north and Protestants in the south with the Catholic faction drawing support from the pope in Rome and Phillip II of Spain and the Protestants supported by England, Germanic Protestants, and some Swiss cantons.

           查理九世的弟弟安茹公爵亨利（未来的法国亨利三世，约1551-1589年）在1573年被选为波兰-立陶宛国王，但当查理九世在1574年去世后，他回到法国并被加冕为国王。此时，他的弟弟，安茹和阿朗松公爵弗朗索瓦（1555-1584年），已经秘密地站到了胡格诺派一边，并在1575年加入了亨利一世·波旁（1552-1588年，路易·波旁之子）和纳瓦拉的亨利在南方的势力。法国现在分为北部的天主教控制区和南部的新教徒控制区，天主教派得到罗马教皇和西班牙菲利普二世的支持，新教徒则得到英国、日耳曼新教徒和一些瑞士州的支持。

The fifth war lasted a year and was ended by the Edict of Beaulieu which restored religious rights to Protestants but angered the Catholics, especially Henry I, Duke of Guise, who felt it made too many concessions to “heretics”. Henry I formed the Catholic League, a coalition of powerful nobles supported by Phillip II of Spain, and started the sixth war in 1576 which ended with the Treaty of Bergerac (1577) that reversed the Edict of Beaulieu and again alienated the Protestants.

          第五次战争持续了一年，以《博利厄法令》结束，该法令恢复了新教徒的宗教权利，但激怒了天主教徒，特别是吉斯公爵亨利一世，他认为该法令对 "异教徒"做出了太多让步。亨利一世组建了天主教联盟，这是一个由西班牙菲利普二世支持的强大贵族组成的联盟，并在1576年发动了第六次战争，战争以《贝尔热拉克条约》（1577年）结束，该条约推翻了《博利厄诏书》，并再次疏远了新教徒。

Protestant resentment, and both factions continuing to condemn each other as “heretics”, sparked the seventh war in 1579. These hostilities ended with the Treaty of Fleix in November 1580 negotiated between Henry III of France and Francois, Duke of Anjou and Alencon. Francois left France shortly afterwards at the invitation of the Dutch Protestant leader William the Silent (l. 1533-1584) to become monarch of the Netherlands and throw off the rule of Catholic Spain there. Francois arrived in the Netherlands in 1582, was given control of significant territories, but wanted more and so invaded Antwerp in early 1583. His troops were ambushed and slaughtered, and he returned to France in disgrace where he died in June 1584.

          新教徒的怨恨，以及两派继续谴责对方为 "异端"，引发了1579年的第七次战争。1580年11月，法国亨利三世与安茹和阿朗松公爵弗朗索瓦通过谈判达成了《弗莱克斯条约》，这些敌对行动因此结束。此后不久，弗朗索瓦应荷兰新教领袖沉默者威廉（1533-1584年）的邀请离开法国，成为荷兰的君主，摆脱天主教西班牙在那里的统治。弗朗索瓦于1582年抵达荷兰，获得了对重要领土的控制权，但他想要更多，因此在1583年初入侵安特卫普。他的军队遭到了伏击和屠杀，他黯然返回法国，并于1584年6月去世。

 三 亨 利 之 战：1585 - 1589

Henry III had no son and so Francois had been next in line for the throne. After his death, this honor went to Henry of Navarre who was considered unacceptable as a Calvinist. Henri I de Guise and his Catholic League, with the support of Catholic Spain, forced Henry III to nullify Henry of Navarre’s legitimate claim as his heir and issue the edict in 1585 demanding that all Huguenots convert back to Catholicism or leave the country within six months. The Catholic faction still held most of the territory in the north while the Protestants held the south.

          亨利三世没有儿子，所以弗朗索瓦一直是王位的下一个继承人。在他死后，这一荣誉落到了纳瓦拉的亨利身上，他被认为是不可接受的加尔文主义者。亨利一世德·吉斯和他的天主教联盟在天主教西班牙的支持下，迫使亨利三世取消纳瓦拉的亨利作为其继承人的合法要求，并在1585年发布诏书，要求所有胡格诺教徒改回天主教或在六个月内离开该国。天主教派仍然占据着北部的大部分领土，而新教徒则占据着南部。

          Armed conflict began in 1585 but escalated in 1587 (sometimes cited as the beginning of the eighth war) and, by 1588, Henri I de Guise had successfully turned Paris against Henry III for his failure to defeat the Protestants and unite France as a Catholic nation. Henry I, popular among the majority of Catholics in Paris, let the rumor spread that Henry III was trying to kill him and in May 1588 (the Day of the Barricades) Parisians revolted against Henry III, barricading the streets of the city to protect de Guise. Henry III fled to Blois and his mother, Catherine de Medici, negotiated a peace with de Guise and the Catholic League.

         武装冲突始于1585年，但在1587年升级（有时被称为第八次战争的开始），到1588年，亨利一世德·吉斯成功地使巴黎反对亨利三世，因为他未能击败新教徒并将法国统一为天主教国家。亨利一世在巴黎大多数天主教徒中很受欢迎，他让亨利三世想杀他的谣言传开了，1588年5月（街垒日）巴黎人起义反对亨利三世，在城市的街道上设置街垒以保护德·吉斯。亨利三世逃到了布洛瓦，他的母亲凯瑟琳·德·美第奇与德·吉斯和天主教联盟谈判达成了和平协议。

In September 1588, Henry III called for a meeting at Blois where he had Henry I de Guise and his uncle the cardinal assassinated. The Catholic League was now taken over by Charles I, Duke of Mayenne (l. 1554-1611, the younger brother of Henry I de Guise), who denounced the king as a Protestant sympathizer and called for his execution. Henry III, with nowhere else to turn, joined forces with Henry of Navarre who began marching from the south toward Paris. In July 1589, Henry III was assassinated by a Dominican friar, Jacques Clement, who was following the directives of the Catholic League. As he lay dying, Henry III named Henry of Navarre his successor. The War of the Three Henrys was concluded, with only one left standing, but armed conflict continued.

          1588年9月，亨利三世在布卢瓦召开会议，他在会上暗杀了亨利一世·吉斯和他的叔叔红衣主教。天主教联盟现在由马耶纳公爵查理一世（1554-1611年，亨利一世·吉斯的弟弟）接管，他谴责国王是新教的同情者并要求处决他。亨利三世无路可走，与纳瓦拉的亨利联合起来，后者开始从南方向巴黎进军。1589年7月，亨利三世被一个多米尼加修士雅克·克莱门特暗杀，他是按照天主教联盟的指示行事的。亨利三世在临死前，任命纳瓦拉的亨利为他的继承人。三个亨利的战争结束了，但武装冲突仍在继续。

总     结

Henry of Navarre was now legally Henry IV, King of France, but had no control over the northern and eastern parts of his kingdom. Between 1589-1593 he won a series of decisive battles against the forces of the Catholic League but could not take Paris which was heavily fortified against him. Recognizing that France would not accept a Protestant monarch, and understanding he could better advance the cause as king than by continuing the slaughter, he converted to Catholicism in 1593 and was crowned king in 1594.

          纳瓦拉的亨利现在在法律上是亨利四世，即法国国王，但对其王国的北部和东部地区没有控制权。1589-1593年间，他赢得了一系列对天主教联盟势力的决定性战役，但却无法攻下对他有重兵把守的巴黎。他认识到法国不会接受一个新教君主，并了解到他作为国王比继续屠杀更能推动这一事业，于是在1593年皈依了天主教，并于1594年加冕为国王。

In 1598 he issued the Edict of Nantes, formally ending the French Wars of Religion by mandating freedom of religion for both Protestants and Catholics, although Protestants were limited to practicing their faith in restricted regions and all outside of Paris. The Edict of Nantes ended the open conflict between the factions but, like all the other treaties and edicts issued since 1563, could do nothing to change people’s hearts and the factions continued hostilities, on a quieter, more personal scale, afterwards.

          1598年，他颁布了《南特敕令》，正式结束了法国的宗教战争。赦令规定新教徒和天主教徒都享有宗教自由，但新教徒只能在限定的地区和巴黎以外的所有地方进行信仰活动。南特敕令结束了各派别之间的公开冲突，但与1563年以来颁布的所有其他条约和敕令一样，无法改变人们的内心，各派别之后继续在更安静、更个人化的范围内进行敌对。

Henry IV was assassinated in 1610 by a Catholic zealot who felt he had betrayed the true faith and religious tensions would continue throughout the next century. The failure of the two factions to come to a mutual understanding contributed to France’s 1635 entry into the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648), one of the most devastating conflicts in European history.

          亨利四世于1610年被一个天主教狂热者暗杀，他认为皇帝背叛了真正的信仰，宗教紧张局势将持续到下一个世纪。两派未能达成相互谅解，导致法国于1635年加入三十年战争（1618-1648），这是欧洲历史上最具破坏性的冲突之一。

参考书目：

Bossy, J. Christianity in the West 1400-1700 . Oxford University Press, 2010.

Davis, S. M & Edgar, W. The French Huguenots and Wars of Religion. Wipf and Stock, 2021.

Gregory, B. S. Salvation at Stake: Christian Martyrdom in Early Modern Europe. Harvard University Press, 2001.

MacCulloch, D. The Reformation: A History. Penguin Books, 2010.

Parker, T. H. L. John Calvin: A Biography. Westminster John Knox Press, 2007.

Rublack, U. The Oxford Handbook of the Protestant Reformations. Oxford University Press, 2019.

作者：Joshua J. Mark

         约书亚·J·马克是自由撰稿人，曾是纽约马里斯特学院的兼职哲学教授，他曾在希腊和德国生活过，并游历过埃及。他曾在大学阶段教授历史、写作、文学和哲学。

原文网址：

https://www.worldhistory.org/French_Wars_of_Religion/