中世纪世界生活手册(三)

英国、法国和西班牙的中央集权
英 格 兰
当罗马人的统治在五世纪的第一个十年结束时,罗马士兵的离开为日耳曼部落、盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人迁移到英格兰铺平了道路,他们在那里建立了自己的王国。盎格鲁人定居在东盎格利亚、麦西亚和诺森布里亚地区。撒克逊人统治着威塞克斯、苏塞克斯和埃塞克斯,而朱特人则控制着部分肯特和汉普郡。在随后的三个世纪里,各部落之间的战争时断时续,以扩大他们在岛上的权力,同时基督教化也在不断深入。到六世纪中期,所有的盎格鲁-撒克逊国王都皈依了罗马基督教。
When Roman rule came to an end in the first decade of the fifth century, the departure of Roman soldiers paved the way for the migration of Germanic tribes, the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, into England, where they established territorial kingdoms. The Angles settled in the regions of East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. The Saxons ruled Wessex, Sussex, and Essex, while the Jutes partly controlled Kent and Hampshire. The following three centuries witnessed intermittent war and struggles among the various tribes to expand their power over the island at the same time that Christianization was ma king inroads. By the mid-sixth century, all the Anglo-Saxon kings had converted to Roman Christianity.
然而,英格兰的基督教化并没有促成政治上的统一。八世纪,诺森布里亚、麦西亚、东盎格利亚、威塞克斯、苏塞克斯、埃塞克斯和肯特这七个主要王国的权力波动占了上风。在九世纪,维京人入侵英格兰,大大改变了当地的政治局势。东盎格利亚国瓦解了,诺森布里亚处于维京人的统治之下,而麦西亚则被维京人和盎格鲁-撒克逊人划分。然而,并非所有的王国都瓦解了。在阿尔弗雷德大帝(871-899年)的统治时期,威塞克斯王国比以往任何时候都要强大,它将苏塞克斯和肯特的领土纳入其中。威塞克斯国王将他们的王国扩展到麦西亚和威尔士的大部分地区,而在阿尔弗雷德的孙子埃塞尔斯坦(924-939)统治时期,整个英格兰第一次被统一。
The Christianization of England did not foment political unity, however. The eighth century was dominated by fluctuations in power among the seven principal kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Wessex, Sussex, Essex, and Kent. In the ninth century Viking warriors invaded Britain and altered the political map substantially. The Kingdom of East Anglia disintegrated. Northumbria came under Viking rule, and Mercia was divided between Viking and Anglo-Saxon rule. Not all was disintegration, however. During the reign of King Aelfred (r. 871–899), the Kingdom of Wessex emerged stronger than ever before, having incorporated the territories of Sussex and Kent. The Wessex kings extended their realm over Mercia and much of Wales, and it was during the reign of Alfred’s grandson, Athelstan (924– 939), that the whole of England was first united under one rule.
到了10世纪末,维京人控制的“幽灵”再次抬头,爱塞烈德二世(Aethelred the Unready)将他的王国输给了丹麦国王斯文(Swein),开启了各自继承人之间的王朝争斗时期。在斯文的儿子克努特大帝统治期间,英格兰被吸收到维京人的北海帝国中。1066年,盎格鲁-撒克逊国王忏悔者爱德华在没有继承人的情况下去世,英格兰王位的争夺战由爱德华的堂兄诺曼底公爵赢得,也就是征服者威廉(1066-87年)。威廉对王位的要求受到了爱德华的妹夫哈罗德·葛温森的挑战,威廉在决定性的黑斯廷斯之战(1066年)中杀死了哈罗德。威廉获得了教皇亚历山大二世(R. 1061-73)的支持,正是在教皇的祝福下,威廉入侵了英格兰。威廉下令对英格兰进行大规模的调查,其结果被记录在《末日审判书》(1080-86)中,并将整个国家变成了一个皇家领地。
By the end of the 10th century, the specter of Viking control reared its head again as Aethelred the Unready lost his kingdom to the Danish king Swein, inaugurating a period of dynastic rivalry between the heirs of each. During the reign of Swein’s son Canute, England became absorbed into the Viking North Sea kingdom. When the Anglo-Saxon king Edward the Confessor died in 1066 without an heir, the battle for the English throne was won by Edward’s cousin the duke of Normandy, otherwise known as William the Conqueror (r. 1066–87). William’s claim to the throne had been challenged by Edward’s brother-in-law Harold Godwinson, whom William killed in the decisive Battle of Hastings (1066). William had gained the backing of Pope Alexander II (r. 1061–73), and it was with the pope’s blessing that William invaded England. William ordered a massive survey of England, the results of which were inscribed in the Domesday Book (1080–86), and converted the entire country into a royal fiefdom.
整个中世纪时期,英格兰王国的中央集权仍然是一个永恒的问题。君主的集权愿望与地方封建男爵的分权愿望之间的冲突,加上频繁的王位继承纠纷,在兰开斯特和约克家族之间的玫瑰战争(1455-85)中达到顶峰。盎格鲁-撒克逊人和盎格鲁-诺曼人之间的政治与文化争斗也引起了内乱。法国王室对英格兰王位的要求未果,导致了英法百年战争的爆发。
The centralization of the Kingdom of England remained a constant problem throughout the medieval period. The perennial conflict between the centralizing aspirations of the monarchy and the decentralizing ambitions of local feudal barons, together with frequent disputes over the succession of the throne, reached its zenith in the Wars of the Roses (1455–85) between the rival Houses of Lancaster and York. Political and cultural rivalries between the Anglo-Saxons and the Anglo-Normans also caused civil strife. French royal claims to the throne of England, and vice versa, led to the Hundred Years’ War.

《大 宪 章》
英国王室的巩固也是在违背教会利益的情况下产生的。不属于神圣罗马帝国的西方中世纪王国需要得到帝国或教皇的批准,以使其统治相对于其他可能的王位竞争者而言更具合法化。金雀花王朝的创始人亨利二世(1154-89年)打破了这一传统,他寻求建立一个专制和真正的主权君主制国家。他认为,君主应该对其领地内的教会拥有主权。因此,他在1164年颁布了《克拉伦敦法典》,将神职人员置于国王的法庭之下,并授权国王选举主教的权力。以托马斯·贝克特大主教(约1118-70)为代表的教会否定了这些措施。随后的权力斗争导致了贝克特被谋杀。当亨利的继任者约翰(1199-1216年)在皇室与教皇的冲突中失利,并将他的王国作为教皇的封地交出时,英国男爵们对其进行了反抗,并迫使他进一步限制君主的绝对权力。由此产生的协议被载入《大宪章》,其中包括建立一个固定的法庭,以及包括君主在内的所有人都要受法律约束和人们应该由其同僚审判的原则。它还规定君主在征收新税之前必须征得土地阶层的同意。
The consolidation of the English Crown also came about over and against the interests of the church. Western medieval kingdoms that did not belong to the Holy Roman Empire needed Imperial or papal approval in order to legitimate their rule vis-à-vis other possible pretenders to the throne. Henry II (r. 1154–89), the founder of the Plantagenet dynasty, broke with this tradition by seeking to create an autocratic and truly sovereign monarchy. He believed that the monarch should have sovereignty over the church within his realm. Accordingly, in 1164 he issued the Constitutions of Clarendon, which subjected the clergy to the king’s courts and empowered the king to elect bishops. The church, represented by Archbishop Thomas à Becket (c. 1118–70), repudiated these measures. The ensuing power struggle resulted in the tragic murder of Becket. When Henry’s successor, John (r. 1199–1216), lost ground in the royal-papal conflict and surrendered his kingdom as a papal fiefdom, the English barons rebelled against him and forced him to restrict further the authority of the monarchy. The resulting accord was enshrined in the Magna Carta (Great Charter), which, among other things, established a fixed law court and the principles that everyone, including the sovereign, was subject to the law and that people should be tried by their peers. It also obliged the monarch to obtain the consent of the landed classes before imposing new taxes.

法 国
统治现代法国领土的墨洛温王朝和加洛林王朝的国王只对他们个人拥有的、构成皇家领地的土地享有直接主权;其他领土由封建领主持有,以示敬意。当加洛林王朝的最后一位统治者于987年去世时,于格·卡佩(Hugh Capet),一个强大的德国贵族(法兰克公爵于格和东法兰克国王亨利·福勒的女儿萨克森海德薇格的儿子),神圣罗马帝国皇帝奥托二世的盟友,以及强大的兰斯大主教的忠实门徒,他说服了大主教,让其加冕为法兰克国王。卡佩王朝的统治从987年持续到1328年。
The Merovingian and Carolingian kings who ruled the territories of what is modern-day France only enjoyed direct sovereignty over the lands they personally owned that constituted the royal demesne. The other territories were held in homage by feudal lords. When the last Carolingian ruler died in 987, Hugh Capet, a formidable German aristocrat, ally to the Holy Roman Emperor Otto II, and loyal protégé of the powerful archbishop of Reims, convinced the archbishop to have him crowned king of France. The Capetian dynasty would last from 987 to 1328.
对于于格·卡佩的所有强大盟友来说,他自己的宗主权范围并没有超出他所拥有的土地:在沙特尔和安茹的财产以及巴黎和奥尔良之间的几个城镇。如果不冒着被阿基坦、勃艮第、布列塔尼和诺曼底公国的封建男爵,还有香槟郡——特别是布卢瓦郡的封建男爵抓走的风险,于格·卡佩几乎无法在自己的领土之外冒险,而布卢瓦郡的统治者奥多一世(955年去世)曾试图将他废黜。在不同的领土上适用不同的法典,多种货币并存,还存在语言上的差异(盎格鲁-诺曼语、奥克语、奥依语和德语),进一步加剧了“法国”的分裂性。
For all of Hugh’s powerful allies, his own sphere of suzerainty did not extend beyond the lands he owned: minor properties in Chartres and Anjou and a few towns between Paris and Orleans. Hugh could hardly venture outside his territory without risking capture by the feudal barons of the Duchies of Aquitaine, Burgundy, Brittany, and Normandy; the County of Champagne; and especially the County of Blois, whose ruler, Odo I (d. 955), attempted to have him deposed. The fragmentation of “France” was further exacerbated by the application of different codes of law in the distinct territories, the coexistence of numerous currencies, and linguistic differences (Anglo-Norman, Occitan, Langue d’oïl, and German).
渐渐地,通过通婚、继承或战争,卡佩王朝的国王们成功地扩大了王国的领土。于格·卡佩的儿子罗伯特二世(996-1031年)在1016年获得了勃艮第公国。另一方面,亨利一世(1031-60年在位)试图从征服者威廉公爵手中夺取诺曼底公国的努力也失败了。对卡佩王朝中央集权的最严重威胁发生在12世纪中期,诺曼底、安茹和阿基坦公国与英格兰王国在盎格鲁-诺曼-金雀花王朝的领导下联合起来。
Gradually, through intermarriage, succession, or war, the Capetian kings succeeded in extending their kingdom. Hugh’s son, Robert II (r. 996–1031), acquired the Duchy of Burgundy in 1016. On the other hand, Henry I (r. 1031–60) failed in his attempts to capture the Duchy of Normandy from Duke William the Conqueror. The most serious threat to Capetian centralizing ambitions occurred in the mid-12th century with the union of the Duchies of Normandy, Anjou, and Aquitaine with the Kingdom of England under the Anglo-Norman Plantagenet dynasty
三位卡佩王朝的国王在法国君主制及其机构的中央化方面发挥了决定性的作用。腓力二世·奧古斯都(1180-1223年)、路易九世(1226-70年)和腓力四世(1285-1314年)。腓力二世·奧古斯都在将其统治扩展到法国北部和西部的大部分地区方面取得了长足的进步。他在1214年的布汶战役中战胜了奥托四世皇帝(1209-15年)和安茹国王约翰(1199-1216年)的联合部队,为他赢得了诺曼底地区,并使他成为欧洲最强大的君主。
Three Capetian kings played a decisive role in the centralization of the French monarchy and its institutions: Philip Augustus (r. 1180– 1223), Louis IX (r. 1226–70), and Philip the Fair (1285–1314). Philip Augustus made great strides in extending his rule over most of northern and western France. His critical victory over the combined forces of Emperor Otto IV (r. 1209–15) and the Angevin king John (r. 1199–1216) at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214 won him Normandy and made him the most powerful monarch of Europe.
在信仰虔诚的路易九世统治时期,王国处于一段辉煌的时期,路易在1297年被封为圣人。他成功地平息了布列塔尼和图卢兹公爵的反叛,并将和平强加给法国贵族的其他交战派别。他的主要任务是确保法国北部的完整,不受英国君主的影响。为此,他在《巴黎条约》(1258)中与英国国王亨利三世达成了领土协议。亨利同意放弃对诺曼底、安茹、图兰、缅因和普瓦图的要求,并正式承认卡佩王朝对这些领土的宗主权,以换取对南部利摩日(里摩)、卡奥尔和佩里格教区、桑通日和阿日奈(阿让)的所有皇家土地的主权。1258年,他与阿拉贡国王海梅一世(Jaime I,1213-76年)在《1258年科贝尔条约》中达成了类似的协议,放弃了法国对鲁西永(鲁西隆)和巴塞罗那的要求,以换取阿拉贡放弃对普罗旺斯和朗格多克的要求。圣路易还在阿尔比十字军东征中发挥了主导作用,他于1229年将朗格多克纳入法国版图。
The kingdom enjoyed a period of glory under the reign of Louis IX the Pious, who was canonized as a saint in 1297. Louis successfully quelled the rebellious feudal uprisings of the dukes of Brittany and Toulouse and imposed peace upon other warring factions of the French nobility. His main priority was to secure the integrity of northern France from the English monarchy. To this end, he made a territorial agreement with the English king Henry III in the Treaty of Paris (1258). Henry agreed to renounce his claims over Normandy, Anjou, Touraine, Maine, and Poitou and formally recognize Capetian liege suzerainty over these territories in exchange for sovereignty over all the royal lands in the southern dioceses of Limoges, Cahors and Perigueux, Saintonge, and Agenais. He forged a similar agreement with the king of Aragon Jaime I (r. 1213–76) in the Treaty of Corbeil in 1258 to relinquish French claims to Rousillon and Barcelona in exchange for Aragon’s renunciation of its claims to Provence and Languedoc. Saint Louis also played a leading role in the Albigensian Crusade, which brought Languedoc into his realm in 1229.
腓力四世对巩固法国王室的贡献不在于他的领土扩张——尽管他试图发动“十字军东征”以收复阿拉贡的努力惨遭失败,他与纳瓦拉的胡安娜的婚姻(1271-1305年)也没有什么政治意义,而在于他加强了王国与教会的关系。腓力四世恰逢阿维尼翁之囚时期,他抓住了教廷转移到阿维尼翁的机会,对所有神职人员的一半收入进行征税。更为臭名昭著的是,他还下令逮捕了富可敌国的圣殿骑士团的所有成员,并在该军事组织解散后没收了他们的资产,归于皇家。
Phillip the Fair’s contribution to the consolidation of the French Crown lies less in his territorial acquisitions—his attempt to launch a “crusade” to recover Aragon failed miserably, and his marriage to Queen Juana of Navarre (1271–1305) was of minimal political relevance—than in his strengthening of the kingdom vis-à-vis the church. Phillip’s reign coincided with the beginning of the Babylonian Captivity, and he seized the opportunity afforded by the transfer of the papacy to Avignon to extort taxes on one-half of the income of all the clergy. More notoriously, the Capetian king ordered the arrest of all the members of the fabulously wealthy Knights Templar and seized their assets for the Crown once the military order was disbanded.
瓦卢瓦王朝查理七世(1422-61年在位)在位期间,恰逢百年战争的最后几年。查理英勇地挑战了《特鲁瓦条约》(1420年),该条约赋予了英国人要求获得法国王位的权利,并收回了失去的所有领土。路易十一(1461-83年)还获得了对剩余封建领主的控制权,并将整个法国统一在其统治之下。
The reign of the Valois king Charles VII (r. 1422–61) coincided with the final years of the Hundred Years’ War. Charles valiantly challenged the Treaty of Troyes (1420), which granted the English the right to claim the French throne and recovered all the territories lost to the English Crown. Last but not least, Louis XI (r. 1461–83) gained control over the remaining feudal lords and united all of France under his rule.

百年战争(1337-1453)和玫瑰战争(1455-1485)
战争的政治影响要求地图绘制者在前一张地图的油漆尚未干透时就得重新划定边界。有些敌意似乎是永久性的,百年战争的起源在于1066年诺曼人对英格兰的征服。作为征服者威廉的继承人,英格兰的国王们要比法国国王控制更多的领土。例如,当金雀花王朝的创始人亨利二世于1154年继承英格兰王位时,他的财产包括诺曼底、安茹和缅因等法国领土,在他与阿基坦的埃莉诺结婚后,这些领土又扩大到阿基坦和加斯科尼。自然,法国王室对这种情况很反感。
The political effects of war required mapmakers to redraw boundaries before the preceding map’s paint was dry. Some enmities seemed perpetual. The origins of the Hundred Years’ War lay in the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. The kings of England who were the heirs of William the Conqueror were to control more territory in France than did the French kings. For instance, when Henry II, the founder of the Plantagenet dynasty, inherited the throne of England in 1154, his holdings included the French territories of Normandy, Anjou, and Maine, and these were expanded to Aquitaine and Gascony upon his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine. Naturally the French Crown resented this situation.
尽管有王朝联姻来短暂地创造和平或恢复和平,但英国和法国一直在打仗。他们在1337年至1453年之间的116年的战争被称为百年战争。这些事件将这两个中世纪的君主国转变为早期的现代民族国家,并为让·弗鲁瓦萨尔的《傅华萨大事记》和莎士比亚的历史剧《亨利五世》和《亨利六世》提供了戏剧化的故事情节。法国神秘主义者圣女贞德(1412-31)的神迹将激励法国国王查理七世(1422-61年)夺回被英国和勃艮第军队占领的领土。在贝德福德公爵的唆使下,贞德被处决,成为一名殉道者和法国民族英雄。
Despite dynastic marriages to create peace or to restore it, England and France fought consistently. Their battles for 116 years between 1337 and 1453 are called the Hundred Years’ War. Those events transformed both medieval monarchies to early modern nationstates and provided dramatic storylines for Froissart’s Chronicles and Shakespeare’s history plays Henry V and Henry VI. A divine vision of the French mystic Joan of Arc (1412–31) would inspire the French king Charles VII (r. 1422– 61) to recapture the territories taken by English and Burgundian troops. Her execution at the instigation of the duke of Bedford converted her into a martyr and a national French heroine.
英法之间的百年战争改变了战争和国家的观念。英国建立了一支由招募士兵组成的雇佣军队,这是对传统的封建征兵制度的一种革命性的进步。长弓的完善改变了欧洲战争的面貌,摆脱了过去对重骑兵的依赖。到1453年战争结束时,两个强大的欧洲国家逐渐产生了民族意识。战争不再被视为个别国王之间的冲突,而是英国和法国人民之间的冲突。百年战争使封建的法国逐渐演变为一个现代中央集权国家。它也从根本上改变了英国的经济,鼓励英国人形成自己的布业和市场,独立于其善变的比利时盟友。
The Hundred Years’ War between England and France transformed warfare and the idea of the state. England’s creation of a paid army of recruited soldiers was a revolutionary advance over the traditional feudal conscription. The perfection of the longbow changed the face of European warfare by doing away with the old reliance upon heavy cavalry. By its end in 1453, national consciousness emerged in the two powerful European states. Warfare was no longer regarded as conflicts between individual kings but between English and French people. The Hundred Years’ War converted feudal France into a modern centralized state. It also radically altered England’s economy by encouraging the English to form their own cloth industry and markets independent of its fickle Belgian allies.
英国的这些积极成果并不能阻止仅仅两年后爆发的内战,玫瑰战争(1455-85)使金雀花王朝的敌对分支为控制王位而相互对立。玫瑰战争的名称是指争议双方的纹章,兰开斯特家族用红玫瑰代表,约克家族用白玫瑰代表。由于约克家族在短期内取得了胜利,这场战争导致了金雀花王朝的衰落,削弱了封建贵族的控制力,并促使了都铎王朝君主的崛起,他们建立了一个强大的中央集权政府。
Such positive gains for England could not prevent the eruption of civil war a mere two years later when the Wars of the Roses (1455– 85) pitted rival branches of the Plantagenet dynasty against each other for control of the throne. The name Wars of the Roses refers to the heraldic emblems of the two disputing sides, the House of Lancaster, represented by a red rose, and the House of York, represented by a white rose. As the House of York prevailed in the short run, the war led to the fall of the Plantagenet dynasty, weakened the control of the feudal nobility, and led to the rise of the Tudor monarchs, who created a strong centralized government.

西 班 牙
在476年西罗马帝国倒向野蛮人的几十年前,罗马的伊斯帕尼亚省已经屈服于日耳曼汪达尔人、阿兰人、施瓦本人和西哥特人部落的入侵。西哥特人取得了胜利,将其他部落赶到北非,并在托莱多建立了自己的首都。西哥特人的统治在711年随着塔里克·伊本·齐亚德(Tariq ibn Ziyad,约八世纪)领导的穆斯林军队的入侵而结束。尽管在王朝的继承问题上经常发生争吵,但他们在位的三个世纪中,大部分时间都是对整个半岛的中央集权统治。拜占庭曾在554年短暂收复科尔多瓦,但西哥特人最终在584年占领了科尔多瓦。西哥特人首先通过坚持阿里乌主义(直到557年)和社会隔离政策与当地的天主教徒疏远,并且无情地迫害犹太人。因此,当穆斯林于710-11年进入半岛,表面上是为了干预西哥特人的王位竞争者之间的继承内战时,当地居民对新统治者几乎没有抵抗。
Decades before the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the barbarians in 476, the Roman province of Hispania had already succumbed to the invasions of the Germanic Vandal, Alanic, Swebian, and Visigoth tribes. The Visigoths prevailed, driving the other tribes to North Africa and establishing their capital at Toledo. The Visigothic reign ended in 711 with the invasion of the Muslim armies led by Tariq ibn Ziyad (fl. eighth century). Despite recurring quarrels over dynastic succession, the three centuries in which they reigned were for the most part characterized by centralized rule over the entire peninsula. One notable exception was the brief Byzantine recovery in 554 of Córdoba, which the Visigoths recovered definitively in 584. The Visigoths estranged themselves from the Catholic local population, first by their adherence to Arianism (until 557) and by their policy of social segregation, and relentlessly persecuted the Jews. Thus, when the Muslims entered the peninsula in 710–11, ostensibly to intervene in the civil war of succession among Visigoth rivals to the throne, the local population put up little resistance to the new rulers.
711年至1492年间,伊比利亚半岛的各个地区被伊斯兰王朝所统治。伊斯兰统治结束了该地区的政治统一。穆斯林在任何时候都没有对整个半岛实施控制。加利西亚、阿斯图里亚斯等最北端的地区以及巴斯克部分地区要么完全逃脱征服,要么在入侵后一代人的时间内被夺回,而穆斯林在8世纪和9世纪试图征服纳瓦拉的行动被查理曼大帝以及纳瓦拉国王成功击退。查理曼大帝越过比利牛斯山脉,于795年在西班牙边疆区(巴塞罗那边疆区)建立了法兰克帝国的统治,这是一个标志着与西班牙穆斯林边界的缓冲区。西班牙边疆区被划分为纳瓦拉、赫罗纳、巴塞罗那和维克等郡,这些郡都效忠于法兰克人。
Between 711 and 1492, various regions of the Iberian Peninsula were governed by Islamic dynasties. Islamic rule ended the political unity of the region. At no time did Muslims exert control over the entire peninsula: The northernmost regions of Galicia, Asturias, and parts of the Basque territory either escaped conquest altogether or were recaptured within a generation of the invasion, while Muslim attempts in the eighth and ninth centuries to conquer Navarre were successfully repelled by Charlemagne and subsequently by the Navarrese kings. Charlemagne crossed the Pyrenees and in 795 established Frankish imperial rule in the Spanish March, a buffer zone that marked the frontier with Muslim Spain. The Spanish March was divided into the Counties of Navarre, Girona, Barcelona, and Vich, which owed allegiance to the Franks.
西班牙北部出现的基督教王国并不遵守长子继承的习俗,在一个统治期间通过战争或婚姻联盟获得的领土统一,在所有已故国王的继承人之间的分割中丧失了。因此,各个王国之间的竞争非常激烈,基督教和穆斯林领袖和军阀经常结成联盟,共同对付同一敌人,从而使从穆斯林占领之初就不断进行十字军东征的神话成为谎言。此外,1031年倭马亚哈里发政权崩溃后出现的混乱,以及其解体为各种“党派王国”,为野心家夺取领土铺平了道路,例如传奇人物罗德里戈·迪亚兹·德·维瓦尔(El Cid,熙德,约1040-99),他为穆斯林权贵充当雇佣兵,然后在1094年征服了穆斯林的巴伦西亚(瓦伦西亚)公国。
The Christian kingdoms that emerged in northern Spain did not observe the custom of primogeniture, and thus territorial unification gained through warfare or marriage alliances during one reign was lost in the divisions among all the deceased king’s heirs. Consequently, competition among the various kingdoms was fierce, and Christian and Muslim leaders and warlords often formed alliances against a mutual enemy, thus giving the lie to the myth of a continuous crusade from the beginning of the Muslim occupation. Moreover, the chaos that followed the collapse of the Umayyad caliphate in 1031 and its disintegration into various “party kingdoms” paved the way for ambitious men to capture their own territories, such as the legendary Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, El Cid (c. 1040– 99), who served as a mercenary to Muslim potentates and then conquered the Muslim principality of Valencia in 1094.
西哥特人灭亡后出现的第一个基督教王国是阿斯图里亚斯王国,其国王阿方索一世(739-757年)从穆斯林手中夺取了加利西亚(740年)和莱昂(754年),并建立了人口稀少的“杜罗河沙漠地带”,这使他的王国相对安全,免受穆斯林入侵。在10世纪的头几十年里,穆斯林的进一步失败使阿斯图里亚国王得以将首都迁往莱昂,并在924年左右建立了莱昂王国。
The first Christian kingdom that emerged after the demise of the Visigoths was the Realm of Asturias, whose king Alfonso I (739–757) conquered Galicia (740) and León (754) from the Muslims and created the depopulated “desert zone of the Duero River,” which endowed his kingdom with relative safety from Muslim incursion. Further defeats of the Muslims in the first decades of the 10th century enabled the Asturian kings to relocate their capital to León and to establish the Kingdom of León circa 924.
930年,卡斯蒂利亚伯爵费尔南·冈萨雷斯(930-970年)宣布自己的郡是一个王国,在他的盟友科尔多瓦哈里发国的帮助下,扩大了自己的领土,并牺牲了他的对手——邻近的阿斯图里亚斯-莱昂王国。在接下来的三个世纪里,这两个相邻王国之间的恩怨被其他穆斯林和基督教统治者成功利用。敌对的纳瓦拉王国在824年从加洛林人手中获得独立,并决心扩大其边界。纳瓦拉的桑乔三世(Sancho III of Navarre)(1000-35年)利用科尔多瓦哈里发国的解体,进一步征服了原先穆斯林在半岛上的领土,并将卡斯蒂利亚和莱昂(但不是加利西亚)并入他的王国,从而建立了比他任何前任更集中了基督教统治。桑乔三世死后,王国将由他的儿子们分成纳瓦拉王国和卡斯蒂利亚王国以及新成立的阿拉贡王国。在14世纪,纳瓦拉被纳入法国卡佩王国,直到16世纪初,纳瓦拉还在卡佩王国的掌控之中。
In 930 the count of Castile, Fernán González (r. 930–970), declared his county to be a kingdom, and with the aid of his ally the caliph of Córdoba, he expanded his territories at the expense of his rival, the neighboring AsturLeonese kingdom. Over the next three centuries, enmities between the two neighboring kingdoms were successfully exploited by other Muslim and Christian rulers. The rival Kingdom of Navarre had gained its independence from the Carolingians in 824 and was determined to expand its borders. Sancho III of Navarre (r. 1000–35) took advantage of the disintegration of the Córdoban caliphate to conquer further Muslim territories and to annex Castile and León (but not Galicia) into his kingdom, thus centralizing Christian rule more than any of his predecessors. Upon Sancho’s death, the kingdom would be divided among his sons into the Kingdoms of Navarre and Castile and the newly founded Kingdom of Aragon. In the 14th century Navarre would itself be absorbed into the French Capetian kingdom, in whose possession it would remain until the early 16th century.
对莱昂领土的另一个威胁来自葡萄牙。葡萄牙北部地区于868年被维马拉·佩雷斯伯爵(820-873)从穆斯林手中征服,这里最初是一个依附于阿斯图里亚斯-莱昂王国的县城,但在1128年获得了独立,并于1249年完成了对南部地区的征服。从那时起,葡萄牙王国的首要任务是避免被吸收到重新统一并大幅扩张的卡斯蒂利亚和莱昂王国中。
A further threat to the territorial integrity of León arose from Portugal. Conquered from the Muslims in 868 by Count Vímara Peres (820–873), the northern region of Portugal was initially a county dependent upon the Kingdom of Astur-León but gained its independence in 1128 and completed the conquest of the southern region in 1249. From then on the Portuguese kingdom’s priority was to avoid being absorbed into the reunited and greatly expanded Kingdom of Castile and León.
此时基督教-伊比利亚仍然被葡萄牙、卡斯蒂利亚和莱昂以及阿拉贡王国分割,但13世纪见证了走向统一的重要步骤。1195年,柏柏尔人-穆拉比特王朝(阿尔摩拉维德王朝)在西班牙南部的阿拉尔科斯惨败给卡斯蒂利亚国王阿方索八世(1158-1214年)后,教皇英诺森三世授予其征服者十字军的地位。最重要的是,卡斯蒂利亚、纳瓦拉、葡萄牙和阿拉贡王国联合起来,在1212年的拉斯纳瓦斯·德·托洛萨会战中消灭了阿尔摩拉维德军队。
Although Christian Iberia was still divided among the Kingdoms of Portugal, Castile and León, and Aragon, the 13th century witnessed important steps toward unity. In the wake of the disastrous defeat at Alarcos in southern Spain that the Berber Almoravids inflicted upon the Castilian king Alfonso VIII (r. 1158– 1214) in 1195, Pope Innocent III granted the Reconquista crusader status. Most significant, the Kingdoms of Castile, Navarre, Portugal, and Aragon joined forces and destroyed the Almohad army at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212.
拉斯纳瓦斯·德·托洛萨会战是半岛统一的一个转折点。阿尔摩拉维德人撤退后出现的权力真空,使卡斯蒂利亚和阿拉贡的国王能够大大扩展其各自的王国。卡斯蒂利亚国王斐迪南三世(1217-52年)占领了科尔多瓦(1236年)、穆尔西亚(1243年)、塞维利亚(1248年)和哈恩(1246年),并将剩余的格拉纳达穆斯林王国变成了附庸国。同时,阿拉贡国王海梅一世 “征服者”(1213-76年)征服了巴利阿里群岛(1228-32)和瓦伦西亚(1238)。15世纪初,阿拉贡王国在地中海推进其权力,吞并了西西里岛、撒丁岛和那不勒斯,形成阿拉贡帝国(或阿拉贡王室)。1469年,卡斯蒂利亚女王伊莎贝尔一世(1451-1504)与阿拉贡的费尔南多二世(1479-1516年)结婚,确保他们的继承人将继承一个统一的王国,这为基督教西班牙的决定性联合奠定了基础。由于他们对十字军的热情和反犹太政策,教皇亚历山大(1492-1503年)授予他们“天主教双王”(Los Reyes Católicos)的称号。费尔南多和伊莎贝尔的联合军队征服了格拉纳达,并在1492年签署了驱逐犹太人的诏书。
Navas de Tolosa would prove to be a turning point in the unification of the peninsula. The power vacuum that followed the retreat of the Almohads enabled the kings of Castile and Aragon greatly to expand their respective kingdoms: The Castilian king, Ferdinand III (r. 1217–52), captured Córdoba (1236), Murcia (1243), Seville (1248), and Jaen (1246) and converted the remaining Muslim Kingdom of Granada into a vassalage. Simultaneously, the Aragonese king, Jaime I “the Conqueror” (r. 1213–76), conquered the Balearic Islands (1228–32) and Valencia (1238). In the early 15th century, the Kingdom of Aragon advanced its power in the Mediterranean, annexing Sicily, Sardinia, and Naples to form the Aragonese empire, or Crown of Aragon. The die was cast for the decisive union of Christian Spain with the marriage of the Castilian queen Isabella I (1451–1504) to Ferdinand II of Aragon (r. 1479–1516) in 1469, ensuring that their heirs would inherit a United Kingdom. For their crusader zeal and anti-Jewish policies, Pope Alexander (r. 1492–1503) bestowed upon them the epithet the “Catholic kings” (Los Reyes Católicos). With their combined armies Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada and signed the edict of the expulsion of the Jews in 1492.


《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》(2008)
By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones


未完待续!
