【简译】腓尼基人的建筑（Phoenician Architecture）

2022-07-17 12:52 作者:神尾智代 0人读过 | 我要投稿

Phoenician architecture is typified by large temples with double-columned facades approached by a short staircase, enclosed sacred spaces containing cube-like and open-fronted shrines, and such large-scale engineering projects as dams and artificial harbours. High fortification walls included square towers and gates, and were built of mud-bricks and limestone, as were more the modest domestic buildings. The paucity of archaeological remains from the period when Phoenician cities were at their height makes general statements dangerous, but it is possible to say that Phoenician architects were relatively austere and sparing in the use of decorative elements both inside and outside their buildings.

腓尼基建筑的典型特征是具有双柱式外墙的大型神庙，通过短小的楼梯连接，封闭的神圣空间包含了立方体式样及敞开式的神龛，以及诸如水坝和人工港口等大型工程项目。高大的防御墙包括方形塔楼和大门，由泥砖和石灰石建成，更多的是普通的家庭建筑。腓尼基城市处于鼎盛时期的考古遗迹很少，这使得考据相对困难，但可以说腓尼基建筑师在建筑内外的装饰元素的使用上相对简易和节约。

资料来源

The study of Phoenician architecture is beset by two problems from the outset. Firstly, having access to abundant cedar forests, it is likely the Phoenicians employed wood for most of their buildings, an unfortunate choice for posterity as wood is not, of course, as great a survivor as stonework. The second problem for historians is that Phoenician cities have been in constant occupation throughout their history which makes archaeological excavations problematic. Although very few remains have survived of Phoenician buildings and we know very little of more modest structures such as ordinary housing, we do, though, have descriptions of larger public buildings from such sources as Herodotus, Strabo, Arrian, and the Bible, and some archaeological evidence of smaller shrines both in Phoenicia and its colonies across the Mediterranean.

对腓尼基建筑的研究从一开始就受到两个问题的困扰。首先，由于拥有丰富的雪松林，腓尼基人很可能使用木材来建造他们的大部分建筑，这对历史学家来说是一件不幸的事，因为木材当然不像石材那样具有近乎不朽的生存能力。历史学家面临的第二个问题是，腓尼基人的城市在整个历史上一直处于被占领的状态，这使得考古发掘工作变得很困难。尽管腓尼基人的建筑遗迹很少，我们对普通住房等较为简陋的建筑知之甚少，但我们还是从希罗多德、斯特拉波、阿里安和《圣经》等资料中得到了对大型公共建筑的描述，以及在腓尼基及其在地中海沿岸殖民地的一些小型神殿发现了部分考古证据。

Another important aid in reconstructing the architecture of the Phoenicians is the fact that their cities were sometimes represented in contemporary Assyrian art, typically scenes of conquest, although the architecture may be schematic, of course. Examples are the bronze gates of Salmanassar III (859-824 BCE) from Balawat and the reliefs of Sennacherib (705-681 BCE) which show scenes of attacks on Tyre. Another source is a 4th-century BCE coin from Sidon. In these art forms, the cities are shown with impressive fortification walls with towers topped by decorative palm sculpture, and houses have multiple floors (perhaps up to six) with two columns outside their entrances.

重现腓尼基人建筑的另一个重要帮助是，他们的城市有时在当代亚述艺术中被表现出来，通常是征服的场景，当然，建筑可能是示意图。例如，巴拉瓦特的萨尔马纳萨三世（公元前859-824年）的青铜门和西拿基立（公元前705-681年）的浮雕，这些浮雕显示了对提尔的攻击场景。另一个来源是公元前4世纪的一枚西顿硬币。在这些艺术形式中，城市有着出令人印象深刻的防御墙，塔楼顶部有装饰性的棕榈雕塑，房屋有多层（可能多达六层），入口外有两根柱子。

耶路撒冷的所罗门圣殿

A helpful source of information on Phoenician architecture is the Bible's I Kings 6-7 description of King Solomon's temple. This was, of course, built at Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE but the architects and artists involved in its construction were Phoenician and its layout matches temple descriptions at Phoenician sites and the wider region. Its general design shows a significant influence from Egyptian architecture.

关于腓尼基建筑的一个有用的信息来源是《圣经》中对所罗门王圣殿的描述。当然，这是公元前10世纪在耶路撒冷建造的，但参与建造的建筑师和艺术家是腓尼基人，其布局与腓尼基遗址和更广泛地区的神庙描述相吻合。它的总体设计反映了埃及建筑对腓尼基建筑有着重要影响。

The rectangular temple had three inner chambers, each on progressively higher levels, with the rear two being connected by a short flight of steps. The third square room at the back was where the Ark of the Covenant was said to have been kept. The temple door was approached by a flight of steps and flanked by two columns, described in the Bible as bronze, by Herodotus as one made of gold and another of emerald. In front of the temple, in a sacred courtyard, was a set a huge bronze bowl described as a 'molten sea' because of its prodigious size and an altar for sacrifices and offerings. Destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar II in the 6th century BCE, there are no archaeological remains of the temple.

这座长方形的寺庙有三个内室，每个内室都在逐渐升高的层面上，后面的两个内室由一段短的台阶连接。后面的第三个方形房间据说是存放约柜的地方。殿门由一段台阶连接，两侧有两根柱子，《圣经》中描述为铜制柱子，希罗多德认为是金制的，另一根是镶嵌着绿宝石的。在圣殿前面有一座神圣的院子，里面有一个巨大的青铜碗，由于其巨大的尺寸，被人们描述为 "熔化的海洋"，还有一个用于祭祀和供品的祭坛。该神庙于公元前6世纪被尼布甲尼撒二世毁坏，现在没有任何关于这座神庙的考古遗迹。

提尔城的梅尔卡特神庙

The temple of Melqart at Tyre, of which no remains have been found, was built during the reign of Hiram in the 10th century BCE (the king built similar temples to Astarte and Baal Shamem too). It was described by Herodotus in Book 2:44 of his Histories. The 5th-century BCE Greek historian tells us that there were two columns at the entrance, made from the same material as those at Solomon's temple. The columns may each have been topped with a Proto-Aeolic capital (fore-runner of the Ionic capital and itself influenced by Egyptian architectural motifs) examples of which have been found on Cyprus and other Levant sites and which is considered a Phoenician invention. The flooring of the temple probably used alabaster slabs to create decorative patterns. Herodotus goes on to say that the god and mythical founder of Tyre Melqart had his tomb within the temple which also functioned as the city's treasury.

人们至今没有发现任何关于提尔的梅尔卡特神庙的痕迹，它是在公元前10世纪希兰统治时期建造的（国王也为阿斯塔特和巴勒-沙姆建造了类似的神庙）。希罗多德在他的《历史》第二卷第44节中描述了这座神庙。这位公元前5世纪的希腊历史学家告诉我们，入口处有两根柱子，用与所罗门神庙相同的材料制成。这两根柱子的顶部可能都有一个原爱奥尼亚式的大写字母（爱奥尼亚式大写字母的前身，本身受到埃及建筑图案的影响），在塞浦路斯和其他黎凡特遗址中发现了这种字母，它被认为是腓尼基人创造的。神庙的地板可能使用雪花石板来作装饰图案。希罗多德说，提尔的神和神话中的创始人梅尔卡特的坟墓就在神庙里，它也是城市的财库。

Unlike in later Greek and Roman temples, the Phoenicians seem not to have created large sculptural likenesses of their gods; the practice may even have been prohibited. Rather, at his temples, Melqart was represented by an eternal fire, a symbol of regeneration. Outside the temple was a specially constructed altar where worship of Melqart was performed involving prayers, burning incense, the pouring of libations, and making offerings to the god of animal sacrifices, foodstuffs, and precious goods. It is thought that the temple of Melqart at Phoenicia's most successful colony Carthage was very similar in design. Another temple at Gades (Cadiz) also had two columns at its entrance, this time made of bronze.

与后来的希腊和罗马神庙不同，腓尼基人似乎没有为他们的神建造大型雕塑像；这种做法在当时甚至可能被禁止。相反，在神庙里，梅尔卡特是由一个永恒的火来代表的，这是一种再生的象征。寺庙外有一个专门建造的祭坛，在那里对梅尔卡特进行崇拜，包括祈祷、烧香、灌酒，以及向神献上动物祭品、食品和贵重物品。人们认为腓尼基最成功的殖民地迦太基的梅尔卡特神庙在设计上非常相似。加的斯（Cadiz）的另一座神庙在其入口处也有两根柱子，这两根柱子是用青铜制成的。

托菲特与坟墓

The tophet was a large enclosure with a sacrificial altar and tombs for the cremated remains of victims. No archaeological remains survive of a tophet in Phoenicia itself but references in ancient sources and their presence in several Phoenician colonies would suggest there likely was such a place in each of the Phoenician home cities. Tophets were located outside and to the north of cities. Aside from the occasional infant sacrifice for which the Phoenicians have become infamous, animals were sacrificed and foodstuffs offered. Votive columns made from wood (aserah) or stone (betyl) were also placed upon sacrificial altars. These were inscribed with prayers and decorated in festivals with flowers and tree boughs.

托菲特是一个很大的围墙，围着祭坛和存放逝者遗体的坟墓。腓尼基本身没有考古遗迹，但古代资料中的记载和几个腓尼基殖民地的存在表明，在每个腓尼基人的家乡都可能有这样一个地方。托菲特位于城市的外面和北部。除了腓尼基人偶尔因婴儿献祭而臭名昭著外，还有动物献祭和食品献祭。用木头（aserah）或石头（betyl）制成的祭祀柱也被放置在祭坛上。这些柱子上刻有祈祷词，并在节日里用鲜花和树枝进行装饰。

Ashes from the sacrifices made at the tophet were placed in an urn. Stones were then placed on top of the funerary urns to seal them and placed within the tophet, sometimes within shaft tombs or dromos tombs built into a low hill-mound and accessed by descending steps. Shaft tombs, which were undecorated, could be quite large - several metres deep, and accessed by a vertical shaft or corridor. An example is the tomb of Ahiram at Byblos which has an entrance shaft, gallery, and chamber for the sarcophagus. In the later Persian dominated-era monuments were constructed above ground to mark the tombs. These are known as meghazils and consist of one or two cylinders topped by a dome or pyramid and with four lions at the base. From the 6th century BCE, stelae were dedicated to Baal or Tanit and placed on top of the funeral urns instead of stones. Many stelae have an inscription which describes a human blood sacrifice or the substitution of a sheep for a child.

在托菲特举行的祭祀活动的灰烬被放置在一个瓮中。然后，石头被放置在墓穴的顶部，以密封它们，并被放置在顶盖内，有时被放置在竖井墓或Dromos墓中，这些墓建在低矮的山丘上，通过下行的台阶进入。竖井墓没有任何装饰，可能相当大——深达数米，通过一个垂直竖井或走廊进入。一个典型的例子是比布鲁斯的阿希兰墓，它有一个入口竖井、走廊和石棺室。在后来波斯人主导的时代，人们在地面上建造了纪念碑来标记坟墓。这些被称为Meghazils，由一个或两个圆柱体组成，顶部有一个圆顶或金字塔，底部有四个狮子。从公元前6世纪开始，石碑被献给巴勒或塔尼特，并被放置在丧葬瓮的顶部，取代了原先的石头。许多石碑上都有铭文，描述了人血祭或用羊代替孩子的情况。

迦太基的托菲特，古迦太基（现代突尼斯）墓地的一个部分。约在公元前400年至公元前200年间使用，该地的墓碑通常设置在死者火化后的骨灰盒上方。

祠庙

Unlike the larger buildings of the Phoenicians, many small shrines have survived at such sites as Sidon and Amrit. The 5th-century BCE shrine at Amrit was set in a large sacred precinct which was enclosed on three sides by a portico with square pillars. In the precinct was set a very large stone basin filled with water, in the centre of which was placed the cube-shaped chapel which had an open front and probably contained a cult figure or symbol. The chapel rested on a short column of blocks and platform and may have been topped with a solar disk. A second type of Phoenician shrine was at the 'high places' mentioned in the Bible which were merely dedicatory stelae set on a low base and found on mountain peaks.

与腓尼基人的大型建筑不同，在西顿和阿姆利特等地，有许多小型神殿幸存下来。公元前5世纪阿姆利特的神殿位于一个大的圣地内，三面由带方形柱子的门廊围住。院内有一个非常大的石盆，里面装满了水，盆中央有一个长方体的小教堂，小教堂的正面是开放的，里面可能有一个崇拜者的形象或符号。礼拜堂坐落在一个由石块和平台组成的短柱上，顶部可能有一个太阳盘。第二种类型的腓尼基神龛是在《圣经》中提到的 "高处"，这只是设置在低基座上的奉献性石碑，人们在山峰上发现了它。

防御工事与港口

Other known structures built by Phoenician architects, besides the above mentioned, include large dams and bridges. For these structures huge stone blocks were used and their remains can still be found at the sites of Sidon, Tyre, and Aradus. Dependent as the Phoenicians were on sea-trade, they also constructed artificial harbours (cothons) consisting of rectangular docks carved out from the natural rock and accessed by narrow canals, of which surviving examples are best seen at colony sites, notably Carthage.

除了上面提到的，腓尼基建筑师建造的其他已知建筑包括大型水坝和桥梁。这些建筑使用了巨大的石块，在西顿、提尔和阿拉杜斯的遗址中仍然可以发现它们的痕迹。由于腓尼基人依赖海上贸易，他们还建造了人工港口（cothons），包括从天然岩石中凿出的长方形码头，并通过狭窄的运河进入，其中幸存的例子在殖民地遗址，特别是迦太基，最容易看到。

The city fortifications seen in Assyrian art are confirmed by excavations at Byblos, which have revealed massive ramparts punctuated by towers and gates. Dating to the middle Bronze Age these walls were constructed with stone foundations and mud-brick superstructures. There were also corridor-like gates which led to the sea, using stepped ramps. Similar fortification foundations have been excavated at Beirut and, on a smaller scale, at Tel Kabri.

在比布鲁斯进行的发掘证实了亚述艺术中的城市防御工事，这些发掘发现了由塔楼和城门点缀的巨大城墙。这些城墙可以追溯到青铜时代中期，是用石头地基和泥砖上层建筑建成的。还有类似于走廊的大门，通过阶梯式的斜坡通向大海。在贝鲁特和规模较小的泰尔卡布里也挖掘出了类似的防御工事地基。

城市住宅

Surviving examples of urban housing are few and far between. In the Early Bronze Age, Byblos had oval houses and rectangular ones with rounded corners. In the Middle Bronze Age, there are large rectangular buildings dotted around the narrow streets of the city in no apparent pattern. These did not contain interior partition walls, and their purpose is unknown. In addition, there were silo buildings made in the shape of a bottle. Other smaller buildings show evidence of being paved with limestone and possess stone channels underneath for drainage. Within these domestic dwellings were ovens and basalt stones for grinding wheat. Buildings were constructed with carved stones and wood (olive, oak, and strawberry) or employed mud-bricks supported by dressed stones placed at corners. There is little evidence of town planning at Phoenician sites where local topography usually dictates the orientation of buildings.

现存的城市住房的遗迹很少。在青铜时代早期，比布鲁斯有椭圆形的房屋和带圆角的长方形房屋。在青铜时代中期，有一些大型的长方形建筑点缀在城市的狭窄街道上，没有明显的模式。这些建筑不包含内部的隔墙，其目的也不清楚。此外，还有以瓶子为形状的筒仓建筑。其他较小的建筑有证据表明是用石灰石铺成的，下面有用于排水的石槽。在这些家庭住所中，有烤炉和用于研磨小麦的玄武岩石头。建筑物是用雕刻的石头和木头（橄榄树、橡木和草莓）建造的，或者使用泥砖，由放置在角落里的石块支撑。在腓尼基遗址，几乎没有城市规划的证据，当地的地形通常决定了建筑物的方向。