Pollution Type

Air pollution 空气污染∶

Primary air pollutants are released directly from their source into the atmosphere 

Secondary air pollutants form as the products of chemical reactions

Stationary source: e.g. factories or power plants 

Moving source: e.g. cars

Point source pollution: a specific location from which pollution is released 

Non-point source pollution: a combination of many sources that produce pollution

空气污染物

CO: primary pollutant, incomplete fossil fuel combustion

NO2: primary pollutant, fossil fuel combustion; NO forms first,and is oxidized to NO2 

SO3: primary pollutant, the combustion of coal; SO2 forms first, and is oxidized to SO3 

O3: secondary pollutant, photochemical smog

PM 10: primary pollutants; particulates can be removed by filters or electrostatic precipitator Lead(Pb): primary pollutant, combustion of leaded gasoline and the peeling of lead-based paint

PANs: secondary pollutant, hydrocarbons+O2+NO2+light →CH3COOONO2(PANs); damage vegetation

Industrial smog （gray smog）灰霾

When CO and CO2 are released in the process of combustion, they combine with particulate matter in the atmosphere and produce smog.

SO2 may be another component in gray smog

Photochemical smog （brown smog）光化学烟雾∶

Warm, arid climates and lots of cars have the most photochemical smog NO2+VOCs+O2+UV→O3+ PANs

VOC∶ 挥发性有机物

Thermal pollution∶heat island effect 热岛效应

城市暖气流上升，郊外冷气流下沉

城市内的气温升高，降水量也增多（温暖的气体可以保存更多的水蒸气）

影响∶

High levels of pollution in metropolitans 

Produce secondary effects on local meteorology

Temperature inversions 逆温

温度有可能随海拔的升高而升高

When a laver of warm air sits atop cooler polluted air over a city and prevents the cool air from rising and dispersing its pollutants

Common over cities that are built in valleys or surrounded by mountains

影响:

Trap pollutants or cause other pollution

Acid rain 酸雨

酸沉降∶dry acid particle deposition & wet deposition（acid precipitation）

硫和氮的氧化物和水反应形成酸，随后形成酸沉降。氧化钙、碳酸钙等缓冲物可以减缓酸沉降的危害。

酸雨的形成

SO2+H2O→H2SO3 & 2H2SO3+O2→H2SO4 

2NO+O2→NO2 & 2NO2+H2O→HNO3+HNO2

影响∶

Damage of trees

Unhealthy for decomposers and mycorrhizal fungi 

Decay of building materials and paints

Lowering the pH of water, which may lead to fish kills

Lime (CaO) and limestone (CaCO3) serve as buffers that neutralize acids, and can be added to soils to reduce the effects of acid deposition

Indoor air pollution 室内空气污染

污染物∶ CH2O， C6H6， NH3， radon （Rn）， tobacco smoke， certain living organisms 

Most abundant indoor pollutants: volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

提高空气质量的措施∶

Emphasizing tax incentives for pollution control 

Setting legislative standards for energy efficiency 

Increasing funding for research on renewable energy 

Incorporating incentives for reducing air pollution

Reducing the use of coal and firewood in developing countries 

Providing incentives to use mass transit 

Phasing out two-cycle gasoline engines

与空气污染的相关法案

Clean Air Act: establishes national standards for the allovvable outdoor concentration of six criteria air pollutants to protect human health.

Noise pollution 噪音污染

来源∶

Wind farms > interfere local wildlife

Sonar >  interfere migratory routes of marine mammals 

Airports, construction equipment, motorcycles, etc.

控制噪声污染的措施∶

Use noise barriers, limit car speeds, control traffic flow → roadway noise 

Develop quieter jet engines, reschedule takeoff and landing time → aircraft noise 

Develop new technologies, install noise barriers →industrial noise

Control noisy equipment (e.g. power tools, loud radios)through laws and enforcement →residential noise

与噪声污染的相关法案∶

U.S. Noise Control Act: establishes federal noise emissions standards, provides information to the public 

Quiet Communities Act: provides for the coordination of federal research and activities into noise control

Water pollution 水污染

来源∶

Excess nutrients (nitrogen, phosphate, etc. )

Organic waste

Toxic waste (pesticides, petroleum products, heavy metals, arsenic, cyanide, acids)

Sediments (soil washed with runoff water into streams)

Hot water(discharged from industrial facilities where it was used as a coolant)

Cold water(from dam releases discharging it from the bottom of reservoir)

Coliform bacteria(bacteria found in the intestines of animals that indicate the presence of fecal matter in water)

Invasive species (e.g. zebra mussels)

Thermal pollution

水质监测的指标∶

Temperature: impacts the solubility of oxygen and the range of tolerance of aquatic organisms 

River/stream flow velocity: fast-flowing water can diffuse oxygen faster than slower-flowing water 

Turbidity: measure of the cloudiness of aquatic systems by suspended solids 

pH: normal for water is 6-8

Dissolved oxygen: amount of oxygen available in the water 

Nitrates and phosphates: nutrients and limiting factors 

Hardness: tests the presence of Mg2+ and Ca2+

Fecal coliform: determines the fecal contamination

BOD: a measure of the rate at which bacteria absorb O from the water

Eutrophication 富营养化

Excess phosphates and nitrates cause large algal blooms, which blocks incoming solar radiation 

Hypoxic zone:lack of oxygen; nothing that depends on oxygen can grow

控制富营养化∶

Controlling the use of fertilizer 

Controlling runoff from feedlots

Converting nitrates into nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria 

Absorption of nutrients by planning vegetation

废水净化∶

Primary treatment: physical process, reducing debris through sand catcher, screens, and sedimentation 

Secondary treatment: biological process, reducing biodegradable waste through filter and sludge processor 

Tertiary treatment: raising the effluent quality to the required standard through sand and carbon filters, and then further chlorination

与水污染相关的法案∶

Clean Water Act: use regulatory and non-regulatory tools to protect all surface waters in the U.S. 

Water Quality Act: encourages the separation of storm water and sewer water lines

Safe Drinking Water Act: requires the U.S.EPA to set standards of maximum containment levels for water pollutants that have negative health impacts for humans

Solid waste 固体废弃物

来源∶

Industrial solid wastes: most come from mining activities 

Municipal solid wastes: trash or garbage thrown out by residents

Leachate 渗滤液∶有毒化学物质泄漏，会污染地下水

Open dumps: large fields or holes in the ground, forbidden in most developed countries Sanitary landfills: more than half of municipal solid waste in the U.S.is buried in sanitary landfills 

Incineration: reduce the volume, waste-to-energy incinerators

"3R"处理固体废弃物∶

Reduce 减少消耗∶

Reduce the consumption of consumer products and energy, requiring less raw material e.g. walk, bike, e-books, second-hand items

Reuse 重复使用

Reuse materials rather than relying on the production of one-time use items. e.g. cloth grocery bags, rechargeable batteries

Disadvantage: only when items are expensive and labor is cheap is reuse economical

Recycle 回收利用

Recycle materials to provide materials for new products. 

The U.S.currently recycles 25%-30% municipal solid waste e.g. plastics, paper, metal, glass

Disadvantage: poor regulation, fluctuation in market price, throwaway packaging is more popular

Human Health

需要知道的几个有关术语

Toxicity 毒性∶ varies with the dose and may have a threshold level

Acute effect 急性效应∶ immediate response

Chronic effect 慢性效应∶long-lasting or permanent damage

Dose-response curve 剂量反映曲线∶an organism's negative response to the dose received

LDs0（median lethal dosage）半数致死剂量∶the dose required to be lethal for 50%of the test population

Non-threshold dose-response 非阈值剂量反应∶the response begins at zero and increases with dosage

Threshold dose-response 阈值剂量反应∶the response do not begin until the dose exceeds a threshold

Infection: the result of a pathogen invading human body 

Disease: when the infection causes a change in the state of health

Pathogen: viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, parasitic worms

对人类有害的化学物质∶

Carcinogens 致癌物∶cause or promote various types of cancer

Mutagens 诱变剂∶promotes mutations or changes in DNA; may also cause cancers or be pass on to future generations

Teratogens 致畸剂∶ cause birth defects

Neurotoxins 神经毒素∶ cause damage to the brain， nerves， or spinal cord

Hormonally active agents (HAA) or endocrine disruptors: mimic estrogen or block androgens from binding to their receptor sites

对环境有害的化学物质∶

Hazardous waste: toxic, corrosive, flammable, or dangerously chemically reactive

Developed countries are responsible for the large majority of the hazardous waste produced worldwide

相关法案∶

RCRA: EPA issues permits to companies that develop a plan for hazardous waste from the initial generation of the waste to the end disposal

CERCLA(Superfund Act): identifies areas that have been contaminated; these areas, known as superfund sites, are placed on the national priorities list for cleanup.

Basel Convention: requires the permission of developing countries before shipments of hazardous waste

有害物质的处理

Bioremediation 生物治理∶ the use of organisms

Phytoremediation植物修复∶ the use of natural plants or genetically engineered plants

Incineration 焚化∶ creates toxic ash

Plasma arc torch 电弧焊矩∶expensive，produces carbon dioxide and releases toxic metals and radioactive elements

Deep-well disposal （injection）深井灌注∶ storing liquid hazardous waste;waste is pumped through pipes into permeable injection zones

Surface impoundment 地表蓄水∶storing liquid hazardous waste; waste lagoons lack adequate liners and leach toxins into groundwater

Hazardous waste landfill 填理∶ places waste in drums or barrels

Waste-to-Energy program （WTE）∶将焚化有害物质生成的能量转化为电能

污染造成的经济影响∶

Cost/benefit analysis: determine the best course of action

成本效益分析可以用于估测政策改变、构想常规方案

Externalities（external costs）外部性∶any negative effects on the environment or society that are not included in the market price

Marginal cost 边际成本∶in pollution cleanup，it refers to the cost of cleaning up each successive unit of pollution; generally it rises exponentially

Sustainability 可持续发展

Renewable sources 可再生资源∶often depleted due to unsustainable use（timber， fertile soil，and fisheries）

Nonrenewable sources不可再生资源∶deplete at a rate that is slow enough to allow their reserves to last for hundreds of years

可持续发展关注的问题∶

Consideration of risk, uncertainty, and irreversibility

Ensuring appropriate valuation, appreciation, and restoration of nature

Integration of environmental, social, and economical goals in policies and activities 

Equal opportunity and community participation 

Conservation of biodiversity and ecological integrity 

Continuous improvement 

The need for good governance