【简译】古坟时代（Kofun Period）

2022-12-14 12:46 作者:神尾智代 0人读过 | 我要投稿

上一时代

Following the Yayoi Period of Japan when farming and metalworking techniques were introduced from mainland Asia was the Kofun Period (c. 250 CE - 538 CE) where the religion of Shinto emerges from the beliefs of previous eras and the Yamato Clan rise to power and eventually become the imperial family. The period is named after the style of burial mounds used during this time.

在日本的弥生时期，农业和金属加工技术从亚洲大陆传入，之后是古坟时期（约250-538）。这一时期，神道思想逐渐从远古的信仰中浮现，大和氏族崛起并最终成为皇室家族。古坟时代也是以这一时期所使用的墓冢风格命名的。

墓冢

The period is marked by the use of burial mounds erected for the elite, varying in size and shape from round or square mounds several meters long to a few hundred-meter-long keyhole shaped ones. Early tombs were simple, they only had the coffin buried in the summit of the mound or inside a stone chamber, but later in the period burial goods were also placed in the tomb, such as weapons, trinkets, or other personal items depending on status. The most powerful people had thousands of pieces buried with them inside separate mounds made exclusively for that purpose. Some of the early burial mounds were made from natural hills but by the 400's CE more and more mounds were made by building a mound on flat ground and featuring a moat. In the late Kofun Period, burial mounds became smaller and more widely used by people of lower status, with groups of 15-meter mounds forming cemeteries. The earliest Kofun were found in central Honshu around the modern-day prefectures of Kyoto, Nara, and Osaka. These cemeteries date from the early years of the 4th century CE but they would later spread to Kyushu in the south and to the northern and eastern areas of Honshu in the second half of the 4th century CE. Burial mounds show distinct features based on both status and region.

古坟时代的特点是使用为精英阶层建立的墓冢，其大小和形状各不相同，从几米长的圆形或方形墓冢到几百米长的钥匙孔形状的墓冢。早期的坟墓很简单，它们只把棺材埋在土丘的顶部或石室内；但在后期，墓中还放置了随葬品，如武器、饰品或其他个人物品，这取决于死者生前的地位。最有权势的人有数以千计的物品与他们一起埋葬在专门为此目的而建造的独立土丘内。早期的一些墓冢是修建在天然山丘上，但到了公元400年，越来越多的墓冢是在平地上修建的，并设有护城河。在古坟时代后期，墓冢变得更小，越来也多地位较低的人也开始修建自己的墓冢，而15米的墓冢群也形成了一块块墓地。最早的墓冢是在本州中部，即今天的京都、奈良和大阪县周围发现的。这些墓地可以追溯到公元4世纪初年，但后来它们传播到南部的九州，并在公元4世纪后半期传播到本州的北部和东部地区。墓冢根据死者生前地位和所处地区显示出不同的特征。

陶器

One of the most impressive developments in Kofun Period pottery was the appearance of Haniwa, funeral sculptures, which depicted decorated horses, fully armed warriors, well-dressed nobles, farmers, and dancers. These sculptures were placed inside burial mounds and tombs in general as offerings.

古坟时期的陶器，最令人印象深刻的发展之一是出现了埴轮（Haniwa），即葬礼雕塑。埴轮一般制作成带有装饰的马匹、全副武装的战士、衣着整齐的贵族、农民和舞者。这些雕塑被放置在墓冢中作为祭品。

Pottery items intended for everyday use were produced in the Sueki style, which was a huge improvement compared to the previous styles used in the Yayoi and Jomon Periods as they were made of blue-green clay, formed on a potter's wheel, and fired in a kiln at temperatures of around 1,000 to 1,200 Celsius, the same temperature modern pottery is fired at.

日常使用的陶器是以Sueki风格生产的，与之前弥生和绳纹时代使用的风格相比，是一种巨大的进步，因为它们是由蓝绿色的粘土制成的，在陶轮上成型，并在窑内以大约1000至1200摄氏度的温度烧制，与现代陶器的烧制温度基本相同。

技术

The technology used during this period is, for the most part, the same as the technology used in the preceding period, although it is from this time that technology becomes more sophisticated. Rice paddies began to be constructed at higher elevations, irrigation systems became more complex, and ironworking became more widespread and intricate. Iron eventually replaced bronze as the metal of choice for tools and weapons as the tin needed for bronze was already hard to come by and was by that period even more scarce. Iron, on the other hand, was plentiful and would eventually become the much stronger steel used in later times.

这一时期使用的技术在很大程度上与前一时期使用的技术相同，尽管从古坟时期开始，技术变得更加复杂。人们开始在更高海拔地区修建水田，灌溉系统变得更加精致，铁器加工变得更加广泛和复杂。铁最终取代了青铜，成为工具和武器的首选金属，因为青铜所需的锡在当时已经很难得到了，而且在那个时期甚至更加稀缺。另一方面，铁矿石很丰富，并最终发展成为后世使用的更硬的钢。

神道

Although Shinto emerges during this period its development is rooted in previous eras such as the Yayoi when the worship of gods was first practiced. The word Shinto translates as 'the way of the gods' and it focuses on diligent ritual performance to maintain a proper lifestyle as well as a connection to the gods, or Kami as they are called in Japanese. The Kami are gods or spirits who embody natural powers such as the sea, sun, wind, storms, moon, as well as things like war or the underworld. Although most Kami were associated with nature, some were people, living or dead, sometimes even objects, if they had the proper qualities such as emperors, warriors, or other great people. At first, no special buildings, like temples or shrines, were needed to worship the Kami and any prayers or worship would be done out in the open or by sacred locations like forests by anyone who cared to. It was later that Kami would be worshipped in temples and dedicated shrines by clan chiefs or priests. These Shinto shrines were usually marked by a torii gate. The Kami were not believed to have lived in the shrine, temple, or sacred spot that was dedicated to them but rather it was thought they visited these locations and occupied a statue or figure that depicted them.

虽然神道在古坟时期出现，但它的发展植根于前时代，如弥生时代。当时，人们对神的崇拜是首次出现的。神道一词被翻译为“神的方式”，它侧重于繁杂的仪式表演，以保持适当的生活方式以及与神的联系，即日本人所说的Kami。神是体现自然力量的神或灵，如海洋、太阳、风、风暴、月亮，以及战争或冥界等事物。虽然大多数神与自然有关，但有些是人，无论是活着还是死了，有时甚至是物体，如果他们有适当的品质（属性），如皇帝、武士或其他伟大的人。起初，崇拜神灵不需要特殊的建筑，如寺庙或神社，任何祈祷或崇拜都是在户外或在森林等神圣的地方由任何愿意的人完成。后来，神被部族首领或祭司在寺庙和专门的神社中供奉。这些神殿通常以鸟居为标志。人们认为神并不是住在供奉他们的神社、寺庙或圣地里，而是认为他们会访问这些地方，并附身描绘他们的雕像或人物。

大和的崛起

Before the Yamato came to power clans would conflict with one another over power. They would become rivals as well as form alliances, using various tactics to try and achieve their goals but no one clan or group of clans would achieve the same amount of power. During the 5th century CE, one family of clans would rise to dominance over the Japanese islands of Honshu and Kyushu. The original seat of power for this clan was the modern-day prefectures of Kyoto, Nara, and Osaka. Each of the clans was governed by an elder male who would perform ceremonies to honor and appease the Kami and ensure the well-being of the clan and their continued dominance. Clan members were of the aristocracy, who at the end of the period would rise up and become the beginning of the imperial family.

在大和氏族掌权之前，各氏族为争夺权力相互争斗。他们成为竞争对手，也会形成联盟，使用各种策略来试图实现其目标，但没有一个宗族或宗族集团会保持相同数量的权力。在公元5世纪，有一个氏族家族在日本的本州和九州岛上崛起，成为当地的统治者。这个氏族最初的权力所在地是今天的京都、奈良和大阪。每个氏族都由一位男性长者管理，他会定期举行仪式来纪念和安抚神灵，确保氏族的福祉和他们持续的统治地位。氏族成员属于贵族，在古坟时期结束时，他们崛起并成为日本皇室的开端。

It was through alliances with other clans, tribes, and confederations, the expanded use of iron, and the capability to marshal their people effectively that the Yamato were an effective military power. Although the Yamato were known to have military supremacy during the period, they tried to avoid war if they could and instead tried to form alliances with other clans by offering them a place in the political system or, when that failed, resorted to threats and forced the other clans into agreement. The major clans that supported the Yamato, like the Soga, Mononobe, Nakatomi, Kasuga, Ki, Otomo, and Haji, were called the uji and would be ranked or titled according to their level of kinship or service. Below the uji were the be groups, which were occupational groups consisting of papermakers, scribes, and blacksmiths, among other occupations. Included in the uji and be were some immigrants from China and Korea who had skills in wanted professions, such as metalworking or papermaking. At the bottom was the slave group, members of which were either prisoners of war or those born into that position.

通过联盟其他氏族、部落，提升铸铁技术，有效调集其人民，使得大和成为一支强大的军事力量。虽然大和在当时很强大，但他们试图避免战争，他们更希望试图形成联盟与为其他宗族提供其位置——在政治制度或当失败、诉诸威胁并迫使其他宗族的协议。支持大和的主要氏族，如Soga、Mononobe（物部氏）、Nakatomi、Kasuga、Ki、Otomo和Haji，被称为uji，并将根据其亲属关系或服务水平进行排名或命名。在uji之下是be，是由造纸师、文士和铁匠等职业组成的职业群体。来自中国和韩国的一些移民也包括在“uji”和“be”中，他们拥有所需的职业技能，如金属加工或造纸。最底层的是奴隶群体，其成员要么是战俘，要么其父母也是奴隶。

与中国和韩国的接触

It is believed that the Yamato Clans of Japan established diplomatic relations with the Paekche Kingdom in Korea in 366 CE and had an outpost in the south which they governed until they were ousted by the Silla Kingdom in 562 CE. According to some Chinese records, between 413 CE and 478 CE five Japanese kings sent nine ambassadors with tributes to China in order to gain support in the Korean peninsula. While China would receive tribute through Korea from Japan, Japan itself would receive immigrants from China and Korea who would bring along with them their skills and knowledge which the Japanese treasured so as to keep on improving their culture.

据说，日本的大和民族在公元366年与朝鲜的百济王国建立了外交关系，并在朝鲜南部有一个前哨站，他们一直统治到公元562年，直到新罗王国将其赶走。根据一些中国的记录，在公元413年至478年期间，五位日本国王向中国派遣了九名大使，并向中国进贡，以便在朝鲜半岛获得支持。当中国通过朝鲜接受日本的贡品时，日本本身也会接受来自中国和朝鲜的移民，他们会带来日本人珍视的技能和知识，以不断改进他们的文化。

向飞鸟时代的过渡

By the end of the period, the Yamato had grown in power and become the Imperial House of Japan, contact with China and Korea increased, and Shinto had made its appearance. The transition to the next period, the Asuka Period (538-710 CE), was marked by the introduction of Buddhism, adoption of Chinese characters as a writing system (as the Japanese natives did not have a writing system of their own) and the adoption of many other aspects of Chinese society since they found the Chinese to be civilized, advanced and wished to be perceived in the same way.

古坟时代后期，大和民族的势力有所增长，他们逐渐发展，成为了日本皇室，与中国和朝鲜的接触增多，神道教也出现了。过渡到下一个时期，即飞鸟时期（公元538-710年），其特点是引进佛教，采用汉字作为书写文字（因为日本当地人没有自己的书写系统），并采用中国社会的许多模式，因为他们发现中国人是文明的、先进的，并希望以同样的方式被对方看待。