【简译】腓尼基世界的贸易

2023-03-24 11:40 作者:神尾智代 0人读过 | 我要投稿

The Phoenicians, based on a narrow coastal strip of the Levant, put their excellent seafaring skills to good use and created a network of colonies and trade centres across the ancient Mediterranean. Their major trade routes were by sea to the Greek islands, across southern Europe, down the Atlantic coast of Africa, and up to ancient Britain. In addition, Arabia and India were reached via the Red Sea, and vast areas of Western Asia were connected to the homeland via land routes where goods were transported by caravan. By the 9th century BCE, the Phoenicians had established themselves as one of the greatest trading powers in the ancient world.

腓尼基人以黎凡特狭窄的沿海地带为基础，运用他们出色的航海技术，在整个古代地中海建立了一个殖民地和贸易中心网络。他们的主要贸易路线是通过海路到达希腊群岛、南欧、非洲大西洋沿岸和古代英国。此外，他们通过红海到达阿拉伯和印度，西亚的广大地区通过商队运输货物的陆路与其相连。到公元前9世纪，腓尼基已经成为古代世界最大的贸易国之一。

地域范围

Trade and the search for valuable commodities necessitated the establishment of permanent trading posts and, as the Phoenician ships generally sailed close to the coast and only in daytime, regular way-stations too. These outposts became more firmly established in order to control the trade in specific commodities available at that specific site. In time, these developed further to become full colonies so that a permanent Phoenician influence eventually extended around the whole coastline of the ancient Mediterranean and the Red Sea. Their broad-bottomed single-sail cargo ships transported goods from Lebanon to the Atlantic coast of Africa, Britain, and even the Canary Islands, and brought goods back in the opposite direction, stopping at trade centres anywhere else between. Nor was trade restricted to sea routes as Phoenician caravans also operated throughout Western Asia tapping into well-established trading zones such as Mesopotamia and India.

贸易和寻找有价值的产品需要建立永久性的贸易站，且腓尼基人的船只通常靠近海岸航行，并且只在白天航行，因此也需要定期停靠。这些前哨站变得更加牢固，以控制特定地点的特定商品贸易。随着时间的推移，这些前哨站进一步发展成为完整的殖民地，从而使腓尼基人的影响力最终扩展到古地中海和红海的整个海岸。他们的宽底单帆货船将货物从黎巴嫩运到非洲的大西洋沿岸、古代英国，甚至加那利群岛，并将货物从相反方向运回，停靠在其他地方的贸易中心。贸易也不限于海上航线，因为腓尼基商队也在整个西亚开展业务，他们会利用美索不达米亚和印度等地完善的贸易设施。

Phoenician sea trade can, therefore, be divided into that for its colonies and that with fellow trading civilizations. Consequently, the Phoenicians not only imported what they needed and exported what they themselves cultivated and manufactured but they could also act as middlemen traders transporting goods such as papyrus, textiles, metals, and spices between the many civilizations with whom they had contact. They could thus make enormous gains by selling a commodity with a low value such as oil or pottery for another such as tin or silver which was not itself valued by its producers but could fetch enormous prices elsewhere. Trading Phoenicians appear in all manner of ancient sources, from Mesopotamian reliefs to the works of Homer and Herodotus, from Egyptian tomb art to the Book of Ezekiel in the Bible. The Phoenicians were the equivalent of the international haulage trucks of today, and just as ubiquitous.

腓尼基人的海上贸易可以分为为其殖民地贸易和与其他贸易文明的贸易。因此，腓尼基人不仅进口他们需要的东西，出口他们自己种植和制造的东西，而且还可以充当中间商，在与他们有联系的许多文明之间运输莎草纸、纺织品、金属和香料等货物。他们还通过出售一种低价值的商品（例如石油或陶器）来换取另一种商品（例如锡或银），从而赚取巨额利润，而这些商品的生产者并不重视这些商品，但在其他地方可以卖到高价。腓尼基人的交易出现在各种古代资料中，从美索不达米亚的浮雕到荷马和希罗多德的作品，从埃及的墓葬艺术到《圣经》中的以西结书。腓尼基人相当于今天的国际运输卡车，而且无处不在。

贸易交流方式

As with many other ancient civilizations the Phoenicians traded goods using a variety of methods. Prestige goods could be exchanged as reciprocal gifts but these could be more than mutual tokens of goodwill as, by bestowing on the receiver an obligation, they were a method to initiate trade partnerships. Luxury goods given as gifts may also have been a deliberate attempt by the Phoenicians to create a demand for more such items and help the Phoenicians acquire the local resources they coveted.

与其他许多古代文明一样，腓尼基人使用各种方法进行货物交易。有名望的商品可以作为互惠的礼物进行交换，但这可能不仅仅是相互表示善意的象征，因为它们对接受者施加了义务，它们是发起贸易协会的一种方式。赠送的奢侈品也可能是腓尼基人故意制造对更多此类物品的需求并帮助他们获得令人垂涎的当地资源的尝试。

Goods could be collected as a form of tribute in return for military protection or under compulsion. These were then stored in large quantities and then redistributed either locally or traded elsewhere. Goods could be bartered for and exchanged in kind on the spot. Alternatively, and perhaps the most common method employed by the Phoenicians, goods could be bought or sold in a relatively controlled manner where quantities and prices were fixed beforehand through the drawing up of trade agreements and treaties controlled by the state. The exchange value of goods was, therefore, fixed and so coinage was unnecessary, which is not to say there was no system of written arbitrary values and credit arrangements. The Phoenicians may not have produced coinage precisely because their trade was truly international and they had no use for coins which could not be used far from the place of their mint.

腓尼基人收集货物作为贡品以换取军事保护或出于义务。这些贡品被大量储存并在当地重新分配或在其他地方交易。货物可以当场进行实物交换。另外，也许是腓尼基人最常用的方法，货物可以在相对受控的情况下进行买卖，通过起草贸易协议和国家控制的条约，事先确定数量和价格。因此，货物的交换价值是固定的，所以没有必要使用硬币，这并不是说没有书面的任意价值和信贷安排系统。腓尼基人之所以没有制造硬币，可能正是因为他们的贸易是真正的国际化，在那些远离铸币厂的地方使用硬币毫无意义。

Completely free trade where prices fluctuate due to supply and demand is a mechanism thought by some historians not to have been in operation prior to the 4th century BCE but the view is much debated amongst scholars. Phoenician trade was likely, then, carried out by state officials working on commission but also by consortiums of traders closely associated with royal households. These latter would have been high-ranking nobles, as described in Isaiah 23:8, "Tyre, the crowning city, whose merchants are princes, whose traffickers are the honourable of the earth." Perhaps from around the 8th century BCE the quantity of trade carried out by private merchants increased and the direct intervention of the state was reduced, again, the point is still subject to academic debate. The trading of goods most often took place in state-sanctioned trade centres which were generally recognised as neutral by the different regional states. The Phoenician city of Tyre is a classic example.

一些历史学家认为，在公元前4世纪之前，完全自由的贸易，价格会因供求关系而波动，但这种观点在学者之间存在很大争议。因此，腓尼基人的贸易很可能是由受委托的国家官员进行的，但也是由与王室密切相关的商人组成的财团进行的。后者应该是高级贵族，正如《以赛亚书》23:8所描述：“泰尔，是个冠冕堂皇的城市，它的商人是王子，它的商人是地上尊贵的人。”也许从公元前8世纪左右开始，私人商人进行的贸易数量增加，国家的直接干预减少，同样，这一点仍有学术争论。货物贸易最常发生在国家认可的贸易中心，这些贸易中心通常被不同的地区国家普遍承认为中立的。腓尼基的泰尔城就是一个典型的例子。

出口商品 - 木材

Phoenicia was a mere coastal strip backed by mountains. Despite the paucity of land available they did manage to produce cereals through irrigation of the arable terrain and cultivate on a limited scale such foodstuffs as olives, figs, dates, walnuts, almonds, pomegranates, plums, apricots, melons, pumpkins, cucumbers, and wine. However, the Phoenicians were most noted as exporters of wood. This commodity came from their abundant cedar and fir forests and had been traded since the beginning of recorded history. The cedar is a tall tree with a thick girth, making it ideal for timber. It also has the additional benefit of possessing an aromatic odour. Mesopotamia and Egypt were the most notable customers, the former receiving their trunks via caravan up to the Euphrates River while ships carried the wood to the African coast. The trade is recorded in reliefs of Sargon II and an inscription of Nebuchadnezzar. According to the historian George Rawlinson, Phoenician cedar wood was used by King Solomon for his celebrated temple, by Herod in Zerubbabel's Temple, and by the Ephesians for the roof of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

腓尼基仅仅是一个背靠山脉的沿海地带。尽管土地贫乏，他们还是设法通过灌溉耕地生产谷物，并在有限的土地上种植橄榄、无花果、枣、核桃、杏仁、石榴、李子、杏、甜瓜、南瓜、黄瓜和葡萄酒等粮食作物。然而，腓尼基人最出名的是木材出口，这些木材来自他们丰富的雪松和冷杉林，并且自有记载的历史开始以来就一直在交易。雪松是一种高大的树木，腰身粗壮，是制作木材的理想材料。它还有一个好处，就是拥有芳香的气味。美索不达米亚和埃及是最相关的客户，前者通过商队将树干运到幼发拉底河，而船只则将木材运到非洲海岸。在萨尔贡二世的浮雕和尼布甲尼撒的铭文中都有关于这种贸易的记录。根据历史学家乔治-罗林森的说法，腓尼基雪松被所罗门王用于他著名的圣殿，被希律王用于所罗巴伯的圣殿，被以弗所人用于以弗所的阿尔忒弥斯神庙的屋顶，这是古代世界的七大奇迹（公元前 225 年，拜占庭的费隆 (Philo of Byzantium ) 在他的作品《七大奇迹》( The Seven ) 中首次将七大奇迹定义为希腊游客必看的景点）之一。

纺织品

The other famous Phoenician export was textiles which used wool, linen yarn, cotton, and later, silk. Wool (sheep and goat) probably dominated and came from Damascus and Arabia. Linen yarn was imported from Egypt while silk came from Persia. Taking these raw materials, the Phoenicians transformed them into uniquely colourful items, especially clothes and carpets. Fine multi-coloured clothing from Phoenicia is referenced both in Homer - where Paris gives Helen a gift of the cloth prior to whisking her off to Troy - and in Egyptian art when depicting Phoenicians from Sidon. The dyed fabrics were then exported back again, for example, to Memphis where the Phoenicians even had their own quarter in the city.

腓尼基人另一个著名的出口产品是纺织品：羊毛、亚麻线、棉花，以及后来的丝绸。羊毛（绵羊和山羊）可能占主导地位，来自大马士革和阿拉伯。亚麻纱线从埃及进口，而丝绸则来自波斯。从这些原材料中，腓尼基人生产出色彩独特的物品，尤其是衣服和地毯。来自腓尼基的精美的多色服装在荷马史诗中都有提及（帕里斯在把海伦送到特洛伊之前送给了她一块布），在埃及艺术中描绘西顿的腓尼基人时也有提及。染色后的织物会被再次出口，例如，出口到孟菲斯，腓尼基人甚至在那里有自己的街区。

Cloth dyed purple (actually shades ranging from pink to violet) using fluid from the Murex trunculus, Purpura lapillus, Helix ianthina, and especially the Murex brandaris shellfish brought the Phoenicians fame throughout the ancient world. Living in relatively deep water, these shell-fish were caught in baited traps suspended from floats. The dye was then extracted from thousands of putrefied shellfish left to bake in the sun. So popular were these textiles that vast deposits of the shells have been excavated on the outskirts of Sidon and Tyre and the species was all but driven to extinction along the coasts of Phoenicia. The highest quality cloth was known as Dibapha, meaning 'twice dipped' in the purple dye. The Phoenicians not only exported the dyed cloth but also the process of extracting the dye, as indicated by the shell deposits found at Phoenician colonies across the Mediterranean. Besides their vivid colours, Phoenician textiles were also famous for their fine embroidery. Popular designs included repeated motifs such as scarabs, rosettes, winged globes, lotus blossoms, and mythical monsters.

用Murex trunculus、Purpura lapillus、Helix ianthina，特别是Murex brandaris贝类的液体将布染成紫色（实际上是从粉色到紫色不等），使腓尼基人在整个古代世界享有盛名。这些生活在相对较深水中的软体动物被悬挂在漂浮物上的诱捕器捕获。这种染料是从数千只在阳光下烘烤的腐烂贝类中提取的。这些纺织品如此受欢迎，以至于后来人们在西顿和泰尔的郊区挖掘出大量的贝壳，该物种在腓尼基的沿海地区几乎被赶尽杀绝。最高质量的布被称为Dibapha，意思是在紫色染料中“浸泡两次”。腓尼基人不仅出口染色布，而且还出口提取染料的技术，这一点从地中海各地的腓尼基殖民地发现的贝壳矿床中可以看出。除了鲜艳的色彩，腓尼基人的纺织品还因其精美的刺绣而闻名。流行的设计包括重复的图案，如疤痕、玫瑰花、带翅膀的球体、莲花和神话中的怪物。

玻璃制品

The Phoenicians also traded glassware. The Egyptians had already been long-time producers but from the 7th century BCE the Phoenicians began to produce transparent glass, as opposed to merely opaque glassware. Important centres of glass production were Sidon, Tyre, and Sarepta. Transparent glass was used to manufacture mirrors, plates, and drinking glasses but the Phoenicians seemed to have appreciated semi-transparent coloured glass (blue, yellow, green, and brown) for their more elaborate productions as well as for jewellery and small plaques which were sewn onto clothing. Phoenician glassware, especially in the form of small perfume bottles, has been found as far afield as Cyprus, Sardinia, and Rhodes.

腓尼基人也进行玻璃器皿贸易。埃及人早已成为生产者，但从公元前 7 世纪开始，腓尼基人开始生产透明玻璃，而不仅仅是不透明的玻璃制品。重要的玻璃生产中心是西顿、泰尔和萨勒普塔。透明玻璃被用来制造镜子、盘子和酒杯，但腓尼基人似乎很欣赏半透明的彩色玻璃（蓝色、黄色、绿色和棕色），用于更精细的制作，以及用于珠宝和缝在衣服上的小牌子。腓尼基人的玻璃制品，特别是小型香水瓶，在塞浦路斯、撒丁岛和罗德岛等地都有发现。

进口商品

The Phoenicians imported metals, especially copper from Cyprus, silver and iron from Spain, and gold from Ethiopia (and possibly Anatolia). This raw material was transformed into ornate vessels and art objects in Phoenician workshops and then exported. Tin (from Britain), lead (Scilly Isles and Spain), and brassware were also traded, the latter principally coming from Spain. Ivory was imported from either Punt or India, as was ebony, both coming to Phoenicia via Arabia. Amber came either from the Baltic or Adriatic coast and was used in Phoenician jewellery. Embroidered linen and grain were imported from Egypt and fine, worked cloth from Mesopotamia. Grain, barley, honey, and oak timber used for oars on Phoenician ships, came from Palestine.

腓尼基人进口金属，特别是来自塞浦路斯的铜，来自西班牙的银和铁，以及来自埃塞俄比亚（可能还有安纳托利亚）的黄金。这些原材料在腓尼基人的工场被加工成华丽的器皿和艺术品，然后出口。锡（来自英国）、铅（斯基利群岛和西班牙）和黄铜制品也有贸易往来，后者主要来自西班牙。象牙是从蓬托或印度进口的，乌木也是如此，后者经由阿拉伯到达腓尼基。琥珀来自波罗的海或亚得里亚海沿岸，用于制作腓尼基珠宝。刺绣亚麻布和谷物是从埃及进口的，精致的织物是从美索不达米亚进口的。谷物、大麦、蜂蜜和用于腓尼基船只的船桨的橡木木材来自巴勒斯坦。

Phoenician markets also traded in slaves (from Cilicia and Phrygia but also captured by the Phoenicians themselves), sheep (Arabia), horses and mules (Armenia), goats, wool (Damascus and Arabia), coral, perfumes (Judah and Israel), agate, and precious stones such as emeralds (from Syria and Sheba). Spices came from the Arabian Peninsula (some coming from distant India) and included cinnamon, calamus, cassia, ladanum, frankincense, and myrrh.

腓尼基市场还交易奴隶（来自奇里乞亚和弗里吉亚，但也被腓尼基人自己俘获）、绵羊（阿拉伯）、马和骡子（亚美尼亚）、山羊、羊毛（大马士革和阿拉伯）、珊瑚、香水（以色列的犹大王国）、玛瑙和宝石，如祖母绿（来自叙利亚和萨巴）。香料来自阿拉伯半岛（有些来自遥远的印度），包括肉桂、菖蒲、肉桂、薰衣草、乳香和没药。

人头狮身人面像镂空象牙镶板，约公元前 900-700 年，发现于伊拉克北部的撒尔曼尼色堡。

后续

From the 7th century BCE, the Phoenicians' trade network was eclipsed by the efforts of one of its most successful colonies - Carthage, by the Greeks, and then the Romans. But the Phoenicians had been the first Mediterranean trading superpower, and their early dominance led to those empires which followed adopting similar trading practices and even adopting Phoenician names for certain exotic goods from distant lands. The Phoenicians had dared to sail beyond the horizon and transport commodities to where they were most prized. As the prophet Isaiah (23:2) stated, "you merchants of Sidon, whose goods travelled over the sea, over wide oceans."

从公元前7世纪开始，腓尼基人的贸易网络在其最成功的殖民地之一迦太基的努力下黯然失色，希腊人、罗马人相继取代其地位。但腓尼基人是第一个地中海贸易超级大国，他们早期的主导地位导致后来的那些帝国采用类似的贸易惯例，甚至采用腓尼基人的名字来称呼某些来自远方的异国货物。腓尼基人敢于航行到地平线以外的地方，把商品运到它们最珍贵的地方。正如先知以赛亚（23:2）所说，“西顿的商人，他们的货物越过大海，越过宽阔的海洋”。