【简译】安土-桃山时代（Azuchi-Momoyama Period）

2023-02-11 10:58 作者:神尾智代 0人读过 | 我要投稿

上一时代

The Azuchi-Momoyama Period (Azuchi-Momoyama Jidai, aka Shokuho Period, 1568/73 - 1600 CE) was a brief but significant period of medieval Japan's history which saw the country unified after centuries of a weak central government and petty conflicts between hundreds of rival warlords. Oda Nobunaga (r. 1568-1582 CE) would establish himself as the military ruler of Japan, and his castle at Azuchi, east of Kyoto, gives the period the first half of its name. Nobunaga's successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi (r. 1582-1598 CE) would continue his work to unify all of Japan, and his base of Momoyama, south of Kyoto, provides the second half of the period's name. Hideyoshi came unstuck with his two failed invasions of Korea, and the period ended with the succession conflict that would see Tokugawa Ieyasu establish the Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1868 CE).

安土-桃山时代（Azuchi-Momoyama Jidai, aka Shokuho Period, 1568/73 - 1600 CE）是日本中世纪历史上一个短暂但意义非凡的时期，在经历了数个世纪的中央政府软弱和数百个敌对军阀之间的小冲突之后，这个国家实现了短暂统一。织田信长（公元1568-1582年）确立了自己作为日本军事统治者的地位，他在京都东部安土的城堡成为这一时期名称的第一部分。信长的继任者丰臣秀吉（公元1582-1598年）继续他统一日本的工作，他在京都以南的桃山大本营提供了这一时期名称的第二部分。秀吉因两次入侵朝鲜失败而陷入困境，这一时期以德川家康建立德川幕府（公元1603-1868年）的继任冲突而告终。

室町时代

The Muromachi Period (1333-1573 CE) had been one of turmoil for Japan with the Ashikaga shoguns never quite in control of all their provinces. The biggest crisis came with the Onin War (1467-1477 CE), a civil war which destroyed Heiankyo and created a century-long aftermath of bitter infighting between rival warlords. It would require one warlord to gain total supremacy for Japan to enjoy peace and a stable government again. Oda Nobunaga would turn out to be that man. Nobunaga had expanded his territory gradually throughout the 1550/60s CE from his base at Nagoya Castle in Owari Province, central Japan, as he defeated all comers through a mix of sieges, battles, and diplomacy. He finally seized the capital Heiankyo in 1568 CE and then exiled the last Ashikaga shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiaki, in 1573 CE. With these two actions, the Azuchi-Momoyama Period begins (hence some scholars choose 1568 CE as the start date while others plum for 1573 CE).

室町时代（公元1333-1573年）是日本的一个动荡时期，将军们从未完全控制其所有省份。最大的危机来自于应仁之战（1467-1477），这场内战摧毁了平安京，并造成了敌对军阀之间长达一个世纪的激烈内斗。日本要想再次享有和平与稳定的统治，就需要一个军阀获得绝对霸权。织田信长就是这个人。在整个16世纪50-60年代，信长从他位于日本中部尾张省名古屋城的基地逐步扩大其领土，同时通过围城、战斗和外交的结合击败了所有挡路者。他最终在公元1568年夺取了首都平安京，于公元1573年流放了最后一位室町幕府将军足利义昭。随着这两次行动的进行，安土-桃山时代开始了（因此一些学者选择公元1568年作为开始日期，也有学者则选择公元1573年）。

织田信长

In 1579 CE and now in control of all central Japan, Oda Nobunaga established a new headquarters at the magnificent Azuchi castle outside the capital on the edge of Lake Biwa, hence this period of history's first name. Nothing remains today of the castle except its stone base, but it was the first to combine a plush residency with defensive features and have the huge multi-storey castle keep that became the norm in Japanese medieval castles. Unfortunately, Azuchi castle was burnt down in 1582 CE but was later rebuilt.

公元1579年，织田信长控制了整个日本中部地区，在首都郊外琵琶湖畔宏伟的安土城建立了新总部，因此这段历史的第一个名字就来自安土城。如今这座城堡除了石头底座外什么都没有留下，但他是第一个将豪华住宅与防御设施结合起来并建造了巨大的多层城堡的人，这成为日本中世纪城堡的标准。不幸的是，安土城在公元1582年被烧毁，尽管后来又重建了。

Nobunaga was able to defeat and maintain his position above rival warlords and to continue to expand his territorial control thanks to his large army which was well-equipped and which included the gifted general Toyotomi Hideyoshi (who would become Nobunaga's successor). Nobunaga was an innovator as he was one of the first Japanese leaders to adopt firearms, his armies having a corps of 3,000 musketeers who, in battle, fired in rotating ranks to create a continuous and devastating volley of fire. Nobunaga's army was also the first to have each man, including the infantry, issued with a full suit of armour. The territories Nobunaga gained were given to his loyal commanders to govern, and the lands of captured warlords were frequently redistributed and relocated to break old ties of loyalty.

信长之所以能够打败对手并保持其高于对手的军阀地位，并继续扩大其领土控制，这要归功于他庞大、装备精良的军队，其中包括有才华的将军丰臣秀吉（他是信长的继承人）。信长是一位创新者，因为他是最早采用火器的日本领导人之一，他的军队拥有一支由 3,000 名火枪手组成的军团。他们在战斗中轮流射击，以制造连续而毁灭性的火力。信长的军队也是第一个为包括步兵在内的每个人配备全副武装的军队。信长获得的领土被交给他忠诚的指挥官管理，而被俘虏的军阀的土地经常被重新分配和迁移，以打破旧的忠诚关系。

In order to secure his grip on power, Nobunaga attempted to reduce the income of his rival daimyo (feudal lords) by abolishing the tolls on all roads. He boosted his own coffers by minting the first Japanese currency since 958 CE and standardising the exchange rates between all the different coins then in use. Another lucrative source of cash was to release merchants from their guilds and have them pay the state a fee instead. From 1571 CE an extensive land survey was begun to make the tax system more efficient. Another policy was to confiscate all weapons held by the peasantry from 1576 CE onwards, the so-called 'sword hunts', something his successors would also do. Meanwhile, Nobunaga continued to expand his territory, his goal was nothing less than a unified Japan. Not for nothing did the warlord emblazon on his personal seal 'Tenka Fubu' or 'a Unified Realm under Military Rule.'

为了确保对权力的控制，信长试图通过取消所有道路的收费来减少他的对手大名（封建领主）的收入。他通过铸造自公元958年以来的第一种日本货币，并将当时使用的所有不同硬币之间的汇率标准化，来充盈自己的金库。另一个有利可图的现金来源是将商人从他们的行会中释放出来，让他们向国家支付费用。从 1571 年开始，详尽的土地地籍开始使税收制度更有效率。另一项政策是从 1576 年起没收农民持有的所有武器，即所谓的“刀狩令”，他的继任者也会这样做。与此同时，信长继续扩张领土，以统一日本为目标。这位军阀在他的个人印章上印上了“Tenka Fubu”（“军事统治下的统一王国”）这不是没有道理的。

It was not just rival lords who suffered under Nobunaga's ambition, many Buddhist temples - rich and powerful institutions at the time, several of which could field small armies - were attacked, too. The most infamous example of this policy was his destruction of the Enryakuji monastic complex on the sacred Mt. Hiei near Kyoto in 1571 CE. 25,000 men, women, and children were butchered in the attack. In contrast, Nobunaga encouraged the work of Christian missionaries in Japan as he saw the benefit of European contacts which brought trade and technology such as the firearms he put to such devastating use. The decline of the Buddhist temples also had repercussions in Japanese art with paintings, screens, sculptures and architectural decorations like door panels now becoming more secular in their subject matter - birds, flowers, and people doing everyday tasks were especially popular - and a great deal more flashy with bold colours and gilding aplenty.

不仅敌对领主遭受了信长野心的后果，而且许多佛教寺庙（当时有钱有势的机构，以至于其中几家可以派遣小军队）也遭到冲击。这项政策最臭名昭著的例子是 1571 年在京都附近神圣的比睿山上的延历寺寺院建筑群遭到破坏。在那里，有 25,000 名男女老少在袭击中被屠杀。另一方面，信长鼓励在日本的基督教传教士的工作，因为他们看到与带来贸易和技术的欧洲人接触可以带来的好处，以及他如此使用的火器具有毁灭性。佛教寺庙的衰落也对日本艺术产生了影响，绘画、屏风、雕塑和门板等建筑装饰品的题材变得更加世俗化（鸟、花和做日常工作的人特别受欢迎），而且色彩大胆，镀金很多，非常华丽。

On 21 June 1582 CE Nobunaga, a man with innumerable enemies, was betrayed by one of his vassal allies, Akechi Mitsuhide. In an episode known as the Honnoji Incident, Mitsuhide, for reasons unknown, successfully attacked Nobunaga's position and, according to one version of the story, when it became clear that his capture was imminent, the man who then controlled half of Japan committed suicide. In a different version, the warlord died in flames as the temple burnt down. Nobunaga's son and chosen heir, Nobutada, died in the same disaster.

公元1582年6月21日，树敌无数的信长被他的盟友之一明智光秀背叛了。在被称为“本能寺之变”（本能寺の変）的事件中，光秀不知为何成功地攻陷了信长的阵地，并且根据一个版本的故事，当他将被俘虏的消息变得明朗时，这个控制半个日本的人自杀了。在另一个版本中，信长在寺庙被烧毁时死于火中。信长的儿子和选定的继承人信忠也死于同一场灾难中。

丰臣秀吉

Nobunaga's death would be avenged swiftly when his foremost general Totoyomi Hideyoshi defeated Mitsuhide at the Battle of Yamazaki and declared himself Nobunaga's successor. Hideyoshi would rule Japan from 1582 to 1598 CE. Hideyoshi's choice of base at his Momoyama castle ('Peach Mountain') in Fushimi, south of Heiankyo, would give the period the second half of its name. Castles, which had sprung up everywhere in the troubled times of the preceding Muromachi Period, were now clearly more for show than defence, although many had impressive wide moats and the introduction of firearms to Japan did necessitate a greater use of stone, thicker walls and windows for musketeers (often triangular) just in case a castle were ever attacked. However, as with the famous Himeji Castle (1581-1609 CE), most castles were never actually attacked. Many castles, too, continued to create ever-widening settlements around them and some of these castle towns would eventually become major cities like Edo (Tokyo) and Osaka.

当他的著名将军丰臣秀吉在山崎之战中击败光秀并宣布自己为信长的继任者时，信长的死将很快得到报仇。秀吉将在公元1582年至1598年期间统治日本。他选择了位于平安京南部伏见的桃山城（'桃山'）作为基地，这也为这一时期的后半部分命名。在室町时代早期的动荡时期，城堡如雨后春笋般出现，现在显然更多的是为了观赏而不是防御，尽管许多有令人印象深刻的宽阔护城河，而且火器引入日本后，确实需要更多地使用石头、更厚的墙壁和火枪手的射击窗户（通常是三角形的），以防城堡受到攻击。然而，就像著名的姬路城（公元1581-1609年）一样，大多数城堡实际上从未受到过攻击。许多城堡也继续在其周围建立了越来越广泛的定居点，其中一些城堡城镇最终成为主要城市，如江户（东京）和大阪。

Hideyoshi commanded a force of some 200,000 men and, like his predecessor, he successfully combined military campaigns with diplomacy amongst his rival daimyo to establish himself as the ruler of most of Japan in 1590 CE. In a five-year period beginning in 1585 CE, Hideyoshi had attacked western Japan, Kyushu, and Shikoku. As with other military leaders, Hideyoshi still sought legitimacy from the monarchy. To gain royal favour from the emperor (who had no real power of his own), he gave money for court ceremonies and rebuilt the palace at the capital. Hideyoshi ultimately awarded himself the title of Taiko ('retired regent').

秀吉指挥着一支约20万人的部队，并且像他的前任一样，成功地将军事行动与外交手段结合起来对付他的对手。在公元1590年确立了自己在日本大部分地区的统治者地位。从公元1585年开始的五年时间里，秀吉进攻了日本西部、九州和四国。与其他军事领导人一样，秀吉仍在寻求君主制的合法性。为了获得天皇（他自己没有实权）的青睐，他为宫廷仪式提供资金，并重建了首都的宫殿。秀吉最终授予自己Taiko的称号（“退休的摄政王”）。

Hideyoshi is noted for his policies and reforms when he governed Japan. To fund the state he extracted taxes from the peasantry and the commercial activities in larger cities. In 1591 CE Hideyoshi developed a rigid class system with different levels for a warrior (shi), farmer (no), artisan (ko), and merchant (sho), the often-called shi-no-ko-sho system. Each class was given an importance based on its production value, and no movement between the levels was permitted, meaning that, for example, only a young man born into a samurai family could become a samurai. Another consequence was that samurai could not be both warriors and part-time farmers as they had been in the past and so now they had to choose one way of life over the other, making them wholly dependent for their pay on their lord if they did choose to serve as samurai. The system, although a little confused in practice and certainly not rigidly imposed everywhere, would remain in place right through the Edo Period (1603-1868 CE).

秀吉以其统治日本时的政策和改革而闻名。为了给国家提供资金，他向农民和大城市的商业活动征税。公元1591年，秀吉制定了一个严格的阶级制度，对武士（shi）、农民（no）、工匠（ko）和商人（shou）划分了不同的等级，即通常所说的四民制度。每个等级都根据其生产价值被赋予重要性，并且不允许阶级之间的流动，这意味着，例如，只有出生在武士家庭的年轻人才能成为武士。另一个后果是，武士不能像过去那样既是武士又是兼职农民，所以现在他们不得不选择一种生活方式，如果他们选择当武士的话，他们的报酬就完全依赖于其效忠的领主。该系统虽然在实践中有些混乱，而且肯定不是在所有地方都严格执行，但在整个江户时代（1603-1868 年）仍然存在。

In 1587 CE Hideyoshi passed an edict to expel all Christian missionaries from Japan but it was only half-heartedly enforced. Concerned that the Jesuits were encouraging the persecution of Buddhist and Shinto believers and that Portuguese traders were selling Japanese as slaves, another edict was passed in 1597 CE. This time a more serious intent was established with the mutilation and execution by crucifixion of 26 Christians in Nagasaki which included priests who had defied the first edict. Still, after this brutal beginning, the campaign to rid Japan of this foreign religion was largely abandoned as impractical and, in any case, Hideyoshi did not want to jeopardise the lucrative silk-for-silver trade with Portuguese-controlled Macao. The Japanese leader's preoccupation with trade is evidenced in his determined campaign to wipe out the wako pirates that plagued East Asian seas. Putting them to his own use, Hideyoshi permitted pirate ships to legitimately trade, provided they carried his own personal red seal, hence their common name of shuin-sen or 'red seal ships.'

公元1587年，秀吉下诏将所有基督教传教士逐出日本，仅部分得到遵守。由于担心耶稣会教徒鼓励迫害佛教徒和神道教徒，以及葡萄牙商人将日本人卖为奴隶，在公元1597年通过了另一项诏书。这一次，长崎的26名基督徒被肢解并被钉死在十字架上，其中包括违抗第一道诏书的牧师，证实了事情的严重性。然而，在这个残酷的开端之后，使日本摆脱这种外国宗教的运动在很大程度上被放弃了，因为它不切实际，而且，无论如何，秀吉在任何情况下都不想危及与葡萄牙人控制的澳门用丝绸换取白银的有利可图的交易。这位日本领导人对贸易的关注在他坚决消灭困扰东亚海域的海盗的运动中得到了证明。秀吉让他们为自己服务，允许海盗船合法地进行贸易，只要它们盖上他个人的红印，因此它们被称为shuin-sen（朱印船）。

日本对朝鲜的入侵

Such was his total grip on Japan, Hideyoshi began to look elsewhere for military action. Between 1592 and 1598 CE Hideyoshi would twice invade Korea in a conflict known as the Imjin Wars. The attack was meant to pave the way for an invasion of China, then ruled by the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE), and this hugely ambitious plan has led some to consider Hideyoshi deranged.

对日本的完全控制后，秀吉开始在别处发起军事行动。在公元1592年和1598年之间，秀吉将在一场被称为“临津战争”的冲突中两次入侵朝鲜。这次进攻的目的是为入侵当时由明朝（公元1368-1644年）统治的中国铺平道路，这个过于雄心勃勃的计划让一些人认为秀吉精神错乱。

Whatever his motives and mental state, Hideyoshi certainly displayed his renowned planning and logistics skills as a fleet carrying 158,000 men landed in Korea at Busan (Pusan) and got off to a flying start. Cities like Pyongyang and Seoul were captured as the Koreans were caught entirely by surprise and King Seonjo (r. 1567-1608 CE) fled to the north of his country. The Japanese advantage in possessing firearms was another telling factor in the success.

不管他的动机和精神状态如何，当 158,000 人的舰队以吉祥的开端登陆韩国釜山（釜山）时，秀吉无疑展示了他著名的计划和后勤技能。平壤和汉城等城市被占领，因为朝鲜人完全被打了个措手不及，朝鲜宣祖（公元1567-1608年）逃到了北部。日本人在拥有火器方面的优势是成功的另一个重要因素。

Eventually, though, the combined operations of the Korean navy led by Admiral Yi Sun-sin (l. 1545-1598 CE) which had covered-deck 'turtle-ships' (kobukson) armed with cannons, a large land army from Ming China, and well-organised local rebels resulted in the first invasion stalling in 1593 CE as the Japanese could not resupply their northern armies. The Japanese did remain in occupation of the south of the peninsula.

但最终，由李舜臣（公元1545-1598年）领导的朝鲜海军（拥有配备大炮的有顶甲板的“龟船”）、来自明朝中国的大批陆军以及组织严密的地方叛军的联合行动，导致第一次入侵在公元1593年停滞，因为日本人无法为他们的北方军队提供补给。但日本人仍然占领着半岛的南部地区。

After protracted and unsuccessful peace talks, Hideyoshi launched a second, much less successful invasion in 1597 CE, and when the warlord died the next year, the Japanese forces withdrew from the peninsula. One of the largest military operations ever undertaken in East Asia prior to the 20th century CE, the conflict would not only have devastating consequences for all concerned in terms of loss of life and the depredation of agriculture and culturally important properties but permanently sour relations between Japan and Korea. The war had also cost the Ming Dynasty a fortune and contributed to its ultimate decline.

经过旷日持久且不成功的和平谈判后，秀吉于 1597 年发动了远没有那么成功的第二次入侵，次年军阀去世时，日本军队撤出了半岛。这场冲突是公元20世纪之前东亚地区有史以来最大的军事行动之一，它不仅在人口损失、农业和重要文化财产的掠夺给所有相关方带来了毁灭性的后果，而且使日本和朝鲜之间的关系永久恶化。这场战争也让明朝损失惨重，并导致其最终衰落。

德川家康

Hideyoshi died of natural causes on 18 September 1598 CE, but he had already arranged for five senior ministers (tairo) to share the role of regent for his young son. These men, though, only fought amongst themselves for supremacy. One of these was Tokugawa Ieyasu (r. 1603-1605 CE) of the Matsudaira family, who had already unsuccessfully challenged Hideyoshi way back in 1584 CE. Ieyasu would eventually establish himself as military supremo after winning the 1600 CE Battle of Skeigahara against those generals who supported Hideyoshi's son. Ieyasu took the title of shogun in 1603 CE and thus established the Tokugawa Shogunate which finally saw the complete unification of Japan and which then enjoyed some 250 years of peace. As the old Japanese saying goes, "Nobunaga mixed the cake, Hideyoshi baked it, and Ieyasu ate it" (Beasley, 117). This next period of Japanese history would be known as the Edo Period after the capital was moved to that city, now known as Tokyo.

公元1598年9月18日，秀吉自然死亡，但他已经安排了五位高级大臣（tairo）为他年幼的儿子分担摄政王的角色。不过，这些人只是为了争夺最高权力而相互争斗。其中一个是松平家族的德川家康（公元1603-1605年），他早在公元1584年就挑战过秀吉，但没有成功。在公元1600年的关原之战中，家康在与支持秀吉儿子的将军们的较量中获胜，最终确立了自己的军事最高地位。1603 年，家康成为幕府将军，建立了德川幕府，最终实现了日本的完全统一，并享受了约250年的和平。正如日本的一句谚语所说，“信长做饼，秀吉烤饼，家康吃饼”（Beasley，117）。日本历史的下一个时期被称为江户时代，因为首都被迁到了江户，也就是现在的东京。