【简译】霍京要塞（Khotyn Fortress）
Khotyn Fortress is a complex of fortifications situated on the hilly right bank of the Dniester in Khotyn, Ukraine. It consists of a 13th-century stronghold and an 18th-century bastion surrounding it. It is one of the oldest preserved fortifications of Eastern Europe.
霍京（乌克兰语：Хотин）要塞是位于乌克兰霍廷市镇的德涅斯特河右岸丘陵地带的一个防御工事群。它由一座 13 世纪的要塞和围绕要塞的 18 世纪堡垒组成，是东欧现存最古老的防御工事之一。
中世纪要塞
There is no information in written sources about the construction date of the first fortifications at this place, but archaeological excavations in the 1960s discovered the remains of an early fortified structure. The first castle had wooden walls and earth ramparts, and it was possibly constructed in the early 11th century by the Grand Prince of Kyiv Vladimir the Great (l. c. 958-1015), who conquered the area around that time and wanted to control the river crossing and gain access to a major trade route.
书面资料中没有关于该地点第一座防御工事的建造日期的信息，但 20 世纪 60 年代进行的考古发掘发现了早期防御工事结构的遗迹。第一座城堡有木墙和土城墙，可能是基辅大公弗拉基米尔大帝（约 958-1015 年）于 11 世纪初建造的，他在当时征服了这一地区，并希望控制渡河口岸，此地连接当时重要的贸易路线。
In 1199, the city and the fortress became part of the Galicia-Volhynia Principality, which used the fortress on the banks of the Dniester, then the border of the principality, to defend the frontier. In the middle of the 13th century, Daniel I of Galicia (l. 1201-1264), King of Ruthenia (formerly Galicia-Volhynia), reinforced the stronghold by replacing the wooden fortifications with stone ones.
1199年，这座城市和要塞成为加利西亚-沃里尼亚公国的一部分，公国利用德涅斯特河岸（当时是公国的边界）上的要塞保卫边境。13世纪中叶，鲁塞尼亚（前加利西亚-沃里尼亚）国王丹尼尔一世（Daniel I of Galicia，1201-1264年）用石制防御工事取代了木制防御工事，加固了要塞。
With the economic crisis of the 14th century in Europe, Genoa sought new income sources. Such an income stream was the Black Sea Basin, which includes the Dniester, as these lands were abundant in agricultural resources. Thus, by the first half of the 14th century, the Genoese created a trade network all across the Danube, the Dniester, the Sea of Azov, and Crimea. Considering the weakness of the Kingdom of Ruthenia in the early 14th century, the Genoese were able to take over the Dniester trade route, and the Khotyn stronghold became a remote outpost defending the trade network.
随着14世纪欧洲经济危机的爆发，热那亚开始寻求新的经济来源。这种经济来源包括德涅斯特河在内的黑海盆地，因为这片土地上有丰富的农业资源。因此，到14世纪上半叶，热那亚人沿着多瑙河、德涅斯特河、亚速海和克里米亚建立了贸易网络。考虑到14世纪初鲁塞尼亚王国的衰弱，热那亚人得以接管德涅斯特河贸易路线，霍京要塞成为保卫贸易网络的偏远前哨。
With the foundation of the Principality of Moldavia in the mid-14th century, under the rule of Dragoș the Founder (d. 1353), the vassal of the Kingdom of Hungary, all the fortifications and trade posts on the Dniester, including Khotyn, came under the rule of Moldavia. In the 15th century, the stronghold was significantly rebuilt and became the residence of the local governor.
14世纪中叶，匈牙利王国的附庸德拉戈什（卒于1353年）建立了摩尔达维亚公国，德涅斯特河上的所有防御工事和贸易站（包括霍京要塞）都隶属于其统治。15世纪，该要塞进行了大规模重建，并成为当地总督的官邸。
In the second half of the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire wanted to conquer Southern Bessarabia and was afraid of the strategic location of the Principality of Moldavia. In 1473, Moldavia refused to pay its annual tribute to the Ottoman Empire, and so Mehmed II the Conqueror (r. 1451-1481) invaded Moldavia in 1474. In 1476, his army reached Khotyn, but the fortress proved impregnable, and the siege was unsuccessful.
15世纪下半叶，奥斯曼帝国想要征服南比萨拉比亚，又忌惮摩尔达维亚公国的战略位置。1473年，摩尔达维亚拒绝向奥斯曼帝国缴纳年贡，征服者穆罕默德二世（1451-1481年统治）遂于1474年入侵摩尔达维亚。1476年，他的军队抵达霍京，但要塞坚不可摧，围攻失败。
奥斯曼帝国时期
At the beginning of the 16th century, the Principality of Moldavia became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, and the janissary garrison of the region took over the fortress. In the 1530s, Petru Rareș (l. c. 1483-1546), the Prince of Moldavia, attempted to conquer the Pokuttya, a region northwest of Khotyn, starting a war with the Kingdom of Poland. However, the Polish army was much stronger, and in 1538, it laid siege to Khotyn and captured the stronghold. During the siege a large section of the wall between the north and east towers was blown up, part of the palace near the east wall, the gate, and the blacksmith's tower were destroyed. The castle was rebuilt and expanded from 1540 to 1544: the walls and the blacksmith's tower were restored, and the new gate was built. The Poles controlled the fortress until 1617 when the Peace of Busza was signed and the fortress came under the rule of Ottoman Moldavia.
16世纪初，摩尔达维亚公国成为奥斯曼帝国的附庸，该地区的卫戍部队接管了要塞。16世纪30年代，摩尔达维亚王子佩特鲁·拉雷斯（Petru Rareş，约 1483-1546 年）试图征服霍京西北部的波库蒂亚（Pokuttia）地区，挑起与波兰王国的战争。然而，波兰军队要强大得多，1538年，波兰军队围攻了霍京并占领该据点。围攻期间，北塔和东塔之间的一大段城墙被炸毁，东墙附近的部分宫殿、城门和铁匠塔（堡垒墙上的侧塔）也被摧毁。1540 年至1544年，城堡进行了重建和扩建：修复了城墙和铁匠塔，并修建了新的城门。波兰人一直控制着这座要塞，直到1617年《雅鲁加条约》 (Peace of Busza)签署，要塞重回奥斯曼-摩尔达维亚统治。
In 1620, the tension between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire reached its peak. The Tatars and the Cossacks, subjects of the Turkish Sultan and the Polish King, respectively, had been in constant conflict, with the Tatars raiding southern lands of the Commonwealth to capture slaves and the Cossacks plundering Ottoman towns and trade points, even threatening Istanbul. Poland had also interfered in the internal affairs of Moldavia, and so, in 1621, Sultan Osman II (r. 1618-1622) gathered an army of almost 160,000 soldiers and launched an invasion. The army of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and their Cossack allies numbered around 50,000 to 60,000 troops. The armies met under the walls of Khotyn, and the battle ended with a Polish-Lithuanian victory. The Peace Treaty of Khotyn recognized the Commonwealth-Ottoman border on the Dniester, but the fortress remained under Ottoman rule.
1620 年，波兰-立陶宛联邦与奥斯曼帝国之间的紧张关系达到顶峰。鞑靼人和哥萨克人分别是奥斯曼苏丹和波兰国王的臣民，他们之间冲突不断，鞑靼人袭击联邦南部的土地以俘获奴隶，哥萨克人则掠夺奥斯曼帝国的城镇和贸易站，甚至威胁到伊斯坦布尔。1621 年，苏丹奥斯曼二世（1618-1622 年在位）集结了一支近 16 万士兵的军队，发动了入侵。波兰-立陶宛联邦及其哥萨克盟军约有五六万人。双方军队在霍京城墙下会师，战斗以波兰-立陶宛的胜利告终。《霍京和约》承认波兰-立陶宛联邦与奥斯曼帝国在德涅斯特河上的边界，但要塞仍在奥斯曼帝国的统治之下。
In 1673, the army of Poland-Lithuania, under John III Sobieski (l. 1629-1696), faced the Ottoman military again. The Commonwealth was victorious; they even managed to capture the fortress, albeit briefly. Afterwards, the Ottomans decided to demolish the castle, but the local governor did not complete the task, and so the castle survived.
1673 年，约翰三世·索别斯基（John III Sobieski，1629-1696）率领的波兰-立陶宛军队再次迎战奥斯曼帝国军队。联邦军队取得了胜利；他们甚至成功占领了要塞，尽管时间很短。随后，奥斯曼人决定拆除要塞，但当地总督没有完成这项任务，因此要塞得以幸存。
At the beginning of the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was seriously concerned about the growing power of the Tsardom of Russia. They were afraid that the Russians would attack the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and then Ottoman Moldavia, where a large part of the population was Orthodox Christian. Moreover, the Turks wanted to reconquer the lands that were lost to Russia after the Treaty of Constantinople in 1700. In 1710, the Ottoman Empire declared war on the Tsardom of Russia, and a year later, Peter the Great (l. 1672-1725) started the Pruth River Campaign, invading Moldavia. The campaign was unsuccessful for Russians, and they had to sign a new peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire.
18 世纪初，奥斯曼帝国对沙皇俄国日益强大的实力深感忧虑。他们担心俄国人会进攻波兰-立陶宛联邦，然后是奥斯曼帝国的摩尔达维亚，因为那里的大部分人口都信奉东正教。此外，奥斯曼人还想重新夺回 1700 年与沙皇俄国签订《君士坦丁堡条约》后失去的土地。1710 年，奥斯曼帝国向沙皇俄国宣战，一年后，彼得大帝（1672-1725 年）发动普鲁特河战役（俄土战争 (1710年—1711年)），入侵摩尔达维亚。这场战役对俄罗斯人来说并不成功，他们不得不与奥斯曼帝国签订新的和约。
The Ottomans reinforced all the fortifications on the Dniester, which performed a role of the northern border. The Khotyn stronghold was significantly rebuilt, and a new bastion fortress was constructed around it. The newly built fortification had seven bastions and five fortified gates. The outer side of the shaft was fortified with a stone wall, in front of which was a moat. The old stronghold was connected to the whole fortification system by a wall. The new 30-hectare (74-acre) complex could house a garrison of 20,000 with provisions and ammunition in peacetime and up to 60,000 troops during hostilities. The stronghold performed the function of an arsenal.
奥斯曼人加固了德涅斯特河上的所有防御工事，使其发挥了北部边界的作用。霍京要塞进行了大规模重建，并在其周围修建了新的堡垒。新建的要塞有七个堡垒和五个坚固的大门。竖井外侧筑有石墙，墙前有护城河。旧要塞与整个防御工事系统之间有一道墙相连。这座占地 30 公顷（74 英亩）的新建筑群在和平时期可容纳 20,000 人的驻军，并提供补给和弹药，在战争时期可容纳多达 60,000 人的部队。霍京要塞也具有军火库的功能。
后来的发展
In the 18th century, the fortress frequently changed hands. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1735-1739, the Russian troops defeated the Ottoman army at Stavuchany (1739), near Khotyn, after which the Ottoman garrison of the fortress surrendered without a fight. With the Peace Treaty of Belgrade later that same year, the Ottoman garrison returned. In 1769, during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774, the Russian army faced the Ottomans on the Dniester. The battle ended with the defeat of the Ottomans and the withdrawal of the Khotyn garrison. However, the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) did not change the Dniester border, and so the fortress came under Ottoman rule again.
18世纪，要塞频繁易手。1735-1739 年俄土战争期间，俄军在霍京附近的斯塔武恰尼 (Stavuchany)（1739 年）击败了奥斯曼军队，要塞的奥斯曼守军不战而降。同年晚些时候，随着《贝尔格莱德和约》的签订，奥斯曼帝国驻军返回要塞。1769 年，在 1768-1774 年俄土战争期间，沙俄军队在德涅斯特河上与奥斯曼军队对峙，战斗以奥斯曼人的失败和霍京驻军的撤离而告终。然而，《库楚克-凯纳尔吉和约》（Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca）（1774 年）并没有改变德涅斯特河的边界，因此要塞再次落入奥斯曼帝国手中。
In 1787, the Ottoman Empire made an attempt to reconquest the lands lost to Russia in the previous wars. The Austrian Empire joined the war on the Russian side, and the Russian-Austrian army surrounded and besieged the fortress of Khotyn. The fortress surrendered, but, again, the Treaty of Jassy did not change the Dniester border, and the Ottoman garrison regained control of the fortress.
1787 年，奥斯曼帝国试图重新征服沙俄在之前战争中失去的土地。奥地利帝国加入了沙俄一方参战，俄奥军队包围了霍京要塞。要塞投降，但《雅西和约》（1792年）同样没有改变德涅斯特河的边界，奥斯曼守军又重新控制了要塞。
In 1806, Russian troops crossed the Dniester into Moldavia, starting the Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812. Without resistance, the Khotyn commander handed over the fortress to the Russians. Finally, in 1812, under the Bucharest Peace Treaty, Khotyn officially became part of the Russian Empire. Thereafter, the fortress lost its strategic importance; it became the headquarters and infirmary of the Modlin Infantry Regiment, stationed in Khotyn. Nowadays, the complex is a historical reserve; the fortress was restored to its 18-century state, and it is a popular tourist destination.
1806年，俄军越过德涅斯特河进入摩尔达维亚，发动了 1806-1812 年的俄土战争。霍京指挥官在没有抵抗的情况下将要塞交给了俄国人。最后，1812 年，根据《布加勒斯特和约》（1812年），霍京正式成为俄罗斯帝国的一部分。此后，要塞失去了战略意义，成为驻扎在霍京的莫德林步兵团的总部和医院。如今，该建筑群已成为历史保护区；要塞已恢复到 18 世纪的状态，成为著名的旅游景点。
城堡防御结构
The castle, after dozens of reconstructions and refinements, has formed a fairly powerful defence system. In order to protect the castle from the artillery fire, as it is situated in the centre of a basin, the walls rise almost 40 metres (130 ft) above the ground. The north and west walls are surrounded by a small stream, and along the south wall is a moat.
城堡经过数十次重建和完善，已经形成了一个相当强大的防御系统。由于城堡位于盆地中心，为了防止炮火轰击，城墙高出地面近 40 米（130 英尺）。北墙和西墙被一条小溪环绕，南墙有一条护城河。
The walls are fortified with five towers, which allowed the castle to cover the surrounding hills with artillery fire:
South Entrance Tower – Built in the early 18th century, the height of the tower is 20 meters, and the walls are 3-4 metres (10-13 ft) thick. Initially, the entrance to the stronghold was situated at the bottom of the tower, but in the 19th century, it was rebuilt, wooden bridges were added, and the entrance was moved up to the current level.
Blacksmith's (South-west) Tower – The current tower, which was built in the 18th century, is a rebuild of a 15th-century one. Almost 29 metres (95 ft) high, with walls 2 metres (6.5 ft) thick, it housed the castle's forge.
Commandant's (West) Tower – Constructed in the 15th century, the tower was directly connected to the commandant's palace. The height of the tower is 62.5 metres (205 ft), and the walls are 2 metres (6.5 ft) thick. On the upper story of the tower, there were loopholes for artillery fire.
East Tower – The tower was built in mid-15th century. The height of the tower is 55 metres (180 ft). Inside, the tower is a 6-metre-thick (20 ft) solid part of the wall, therefore the only way to get to the loophole level is through the castle walls.
North Tower – Constructed in the mid-15th century, the tower was the keep of the castle. It has four tiers with loopholes that were used for artillery and musket fire. The walls of the tower are 68 metres (223 ft) high and 2 metres (6.5 ft) thick.
城墙上建有五座塔楼，使城堡能够用炮火覆盖周围的山丘：
南入口塔：建于 18 世纪初，塔高 20 米，墙厚 3-4 米（10-13 英尺）。最初，要塞的入口位于塔的底部，但在 19 世纪进行了重建，增加了木桥，入口也被移到了现在的位置。
铁匠塔（西南）：现在的铁匠塔建于 18 世纪，是在 15 世纪的铁匠塔基础上重建的。塔高近 29 米（95 英尺），墙厚 2 米（6.5 英尺），是城堡的锻造室。
司令塔（西）：建于 15 世纪，与司令官邸直接相连。塔高 62.5 米（205 英尺），墙厚 2 米（6.5 英尺）。塔的上层有供火炮射击的射孔。
东塔：该塔建于 15 世纪中叶。塔高 55 米（180 英尺）。塔内是 6 米厚（20 英尺）的坚固城墙，因此只有穿过城堡城墙才能到射孔层。
北塔：建于 15 世纪中叶，是要塞的主楼。塔楼共有四层，设有用于火炮和火枪射击的射孔。塔墙高 68 米（223 英尺），厚 2 米（6.5 英尺）。
城堡庭院
The courtyard is divided into two halves by the house of the commandant. The northern part, which is the oldest part of the castle, is referred to as Duke's Yard or Commandant's Yard, while the southern part of the stronghold is called the Yard of Warriors.
庭院被司令官邸分为两半。北部是城堡最古老的部分，被称为公爵院或指挥官院，而要塞的南部则被称为勇士院。
The majority of the buildings are located in the southern part:
The house of the commandant – The 15th-century two-story palace was built of white stone blocks and red bricks. Inside, the palace is divided into residential and keeping parts. The palace also had portals and white stone frames, but the majority of these elements were lost in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Barracks – The two-story living quarters of the stronghold garrison were constructed in the 15th-century along the eastern wall. Rebuilt many times throughout history, they currently house a museum of the fortress.
Castle well – Located in the middle of the courtyard, it is 50 metres (164 ft) deep and dates back to the 15th century.
Castle chapel – The date of the construction is unknown, but it was probably built between the 13th and 15th centuries in the Romanesque and Gothic architectural styles. It was rebuilt many times, converted into a mosque in the Ottoman period and reconstructed into an Orthodox church in the early 19th century.
大部分建筑位于南部：
司令官邸：这座 15 世纪的两层宫殿由白色石块和红砖建成。官邸内部分为居住区和警卫区，官邸还有门户和白石框架，但这些结构大多在 19 世纪和 20 世纪消失了。
兵营：要塞守军的两层生活区建于 15 世纪，沿东墙而建。历史上曾多次重建，目前是要塞博物馆所在地。
要塞水井：位于庭院中央，深 50 米（164 英尺），其历史可追溯到 15 世纪。
要塞小教堂：建造年代不详，但可能建于 13-15 世纪之间，具有罗马式和哥特式建筑风格。它曾多次重建，奥斯曼时期被改建为清真寺，19 世纪初又重建为东正教教堂。
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原文作者：Artem Vynohradov
原文网址: https://www.worldhistory.org/Khotyn_Fortress/
