wiki笔记--Nucleus accumbens(破解Dopaminergic system的核心)--2021/4/12
特别说明:由于文章内容粘贴缘故,最终结果导致文中一些格式会消失,请不要在意,专注于文字内容即可。文中文字大小为“特大”方式突出的部分是我的笔记标识内容,是我格外喜欢,用于推理的基础,括号内的有色文字内容是当时我思考的纪录,这样方便自己和他人直接找到那些曾经标记的内容。当然也不全限于此,灵感所致,所加内容无所不及,唯独不会更改原文内容。

The nucleus accumbens (NAc or NAcc), also known as the accumbensnucleus or as the nucleus accumbens septi (Latin for nucleus adjacentto the septum) is a region in the basal forebrain rostral to the preoptic area of the hypothalamus.[1] The nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle collectively form the ventral striatum, which is part of the basal ganglia.[2] Each cerebral hemisphere has its own nucleus accumbens,which can be divided into two structures: the nucleus accumbens core and the nucleus accumbens shell. These substructures have different morphology and functions.
Different NAcc subregions (core vs shell) and neuron subpopulations within each region (D1-type vs D2-type medium spiny neurons) are responsible for different cognitive functions.[3][4] As a whole, the nucleus accumbens has a significant role in the cognitive processing of aversion,motivation, reward (i.e., incentive salience, pleasure, and positive re inforcement), and reinforcement learning;[5][6][7] hence, it has a significant role in addiction.[6][7] It plays a lesser role in processing fear(a form of aversion), impulsivity, and the placebo effect.[8][9][10] It is involved in the encoding of new motor programs as well.[6]
Structure
The nucleus accumbens is an aggregate of neurons which is described as having an outer shell and an inner core.[6]
Input Major inputs to the nucleus accumbens include the prefrontal cortex,basolateral amygdala
(或许是这样:外界信息激发basolateral amygdala,basolateral amygdala excite nucleus accumbens, nucleus accumbens inhibit ventral tegmental area and parasympathetic system, 这个过程很短暂,是一惊的那种,然后由于外界信息迅速消失,如果没有生命健康威胁就迅速消失,短暂被抑制的ventral tegmental area有可能迅速爆发,产生惊喜的感觉。要不然,持续的外界信息激发basolateral amygdala,带来持续的对ventral tegmental area and parasympathetic system抑制,从而通过NE system逐渐加强交感系统、回避行为?这些调整是在2岁左右时就完成的?似乎我在2岁的秀秀身上看到了对应行为。)(惊喜的感觉应该是:under the effect of basolateral amygdala, nucleus accumbens inhibit parasympathetic system(which means sympathetic system begin to work) and VTA, but VTA is relatively under less strong inhibition, then the nucleus accumbens is released from basolateral amygdala, VTA and parasympathetic system work again while sympathetic effect is still on, so 惊喜的感觉是在肺部吸气动作还未结束时VTA和 parasympathetic system就开始了工作,这三者同时发生就是惊喜(弱一点状态就是微微惊喜感觉)。一种工作模式,通过兴奋cholinergic system来兴奋皮层和丘脑,从而激发amygdala,再通过amygdala兴奋的交感系统反手抑制副交感系统,从而抑制cholinergic system,这样达到短暂极度兴奋。李小龙的快速出拳出脚就是反复在这一状态下训练的结果;B站上的Bounce Batrol节目也大量包含了这一状态,所以有兴趣的可以看看这些结果找找感觉。)
, and dopaminergic neurons located in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), which connect via the mesolimbic pathway. Thus the nucleus accumbens is often described as one part of a cortico–basal ganglia–thalamic loop.[11]
Dopaminergic input from the VTA modulate the activity of neurons within the nucleus accumbens. These neurons are activated directly or indirectly by euphoriant drugs (e.g., amphetamine, opiates, etc.) and by participating in rewarding experiences (e.g., sex, music, exercise, etc.).[12][13]
Another major source of input comes from the CA1 and ventral subiculum of the hippocampus to the dorsomedial area of the nucleus accumbens. Slight depolarizations of cells in the nucleus accumbens correlates with positivity of the neurons of the hippocampus, making them more excitable. The correlated cells of these excited states of the medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens are shared equally between the subiculum and CA1. The subiculum neurons are found to hyperpolarize(increase negativity) while the CA1 neurons "ripple" (fire > 50 Hz) in order to accomplish this priming.[14]
The nucleus accumbens is one of the few regions that receive histaminergic projections from the tuberomammillary nucleus(the sole source of histamine neurons in the brain).[15]
Output
The output neurons of the nucleus accumbens send axonal projections to the basal ganglia and the ventral analog of the globus pallidus, known as the ventral pallidum (VP). The VP, in turn, projects to the medial dorsal nucleus of the dorsal thalamus, which projects to the prefrontal cortex as well as the striatum. Other efferents from the nucleus accumbens include connections with the tail of the ventral tegmental area,[16] substantia nigra, and the reticular formation of the pons.[1]
( nucleus accumbens基本上输出的都是抑制性递质。递质类型这样的最基本的属性居然在很多词条中都不提,我觉得是因为大家不能从这个基本属性中获得新的认识所致。往往我会在其他词条的细节中惊讶地发现一些神经核团的递质类型,比如central nucleus of amygdala居然是抑制型的,此前根据教科书中的功能叙述central nucleus明显是起到兴奋其他核团的作用,这里显然存在巨大矛盾。如果上述内容都是正确的话,再结合我自身的观察,我得出了在蓝斑中除了adrenergic neurons以外一定还存在抑制型neuron专门抑制adrenergic neurons,central nucleus投射在蓝斑的抑制型neuron,从而解放了adrenergic neurons。这种抑制抑制的细胞来兴奋的模式,见下图说明。)

抑制抑制的细胞来兴奋
小总结一下,第一点,wikipedia词条中许多最基本的结构属性都没有完整给出,但是可以在其他词条中能找到,说明对于神经系统的认知还很浅;第二点,抑制抑制的细胞来兴奋的模式这是一种很普遍的兴奋模式,这样的兴奋取决于核团自身的兴奋能力,一种健康的兴奋模式;第三点,我推论出的蓝斑中存在专门抑制adrenergic neurons的抑制型neuron,这一点有谁能给出解剖学上的证明?
Shell
The nucleus accumbens shell (NAcc shell) is a substructure of the nucleus accumbens. The shell and core together form the entire nucleus accumbens.
Location: The shell is the outer region of the nucleus accumbens, and – unlike the core – is considered to be part of the extended amygdala, located at its rostral pole.
Cell types: Neurons in the nucleus accumbens are mostly medium spiny neurons (MSNs) containing mainly D1-type (i.e.,DRD1 and DRD5) or D2-type (i.e., DRD2, DRD3, and DRD4) dopamine receptors. A subpopulation of MSNs contain bothD1-type and D2-type receptors, with approximately 40% of striatal MSNs expressing both DRD1 and DRD2 mRNA.[11][17][18]These mixed-type NAcc MSNs with both D1-type and D2-type receptors are mostly confined to the NAcc shell.[11] The neurons in the shell, as compared to the core, have a lower density of dendritic spines, less terminal segments, and less branch segments than those in the core. The shell neurons project to the subcommissural part of the ventral pallidum as well as the ventral tegmental area and to extensive areas in the hypothalamus
(或许the shell neurons去抑制副交感系统,从而解放交感系统)
and extended amygdala.[19][20][21]
Function: The shell of the nucleus accumbens is involved in the cognitive processing of reward perception, subjective "liking"reactions to certain pleasurable stimuli, incentive salience for rewarding stimuli (specifically, the NAcc shell determines the value of and assigns the "desire" or "wanting" attribute of a stimulus), and positive reinforcement.[3][6][22][23] A "hedonichotspot" or pleasure center which is responsible for the pleasurable or "liking" component of some intrinsic rewards is alsolocated in a small compartment within the medial NAcc shell.[23][24][25] The subset of ventral tegmental area projection neurons that synapse onto the D1-type medium spiny neurons in the shell appear to be responsible for immediate drug reward(i.e., "wanting").[3][26][27] Addictive drugs have a larger effect on dopamine release in the shell than in the core.[6] D2-type medium spiny neurons in the shell appear to be associated with aversion-related cognition.[4]
Core
The nucleus accumbens core (NAcc core) is the inner substructure of the nucleus accumbens.
Location: The nucleus accumbens core is part of the ventral striatum, located within the basal ganglia.
Cell types: The core of the NAcc is made up mainly of medium spiny neurons containing mainly D1-type or D2-type dopamine receptors. The neurons in the core, as compared to the neurons in the shell, have an increased density of dendritic spines, branch segments, and terminal segments. From the core, the neurons project to other sub-cortical areas such as the globus pallidus
(或许只是internal globus pallidus, according to the entry of habenular nucleus.)
and the substantia nigra.
(core of the NAcc对substantia nigra的抑制,难道是将不可控的substantia nigra控制模式转换为由皮层控制putamen和caudate nucleus,从而实现皮层对行为的精确控制?这个状态的前提是通过VTA对core of the NAcc有一个持续稳定的输入,或许这是通过海马皮层对lateral septal area至VTA的路径来实现的吧?VTA的活动带动了prefrontal cortex的活跃,从而能够给temporal cortex提供建立联系的机会。这个过程难道是动手能力的机制?第一次动手体验是substantia nigra控制模式,以后的动手模式是皮层控制模式(putamen负责动作发起,caudate nucleus负责动作结束,subthalamus负责调控动作过程快慢,那些投射到caudate nucleus的皮层负责结束记忆,比如听到语言停止,看到手势停止,看到目标停止。说话的起、持续过程、结束,对应putamen、subthalamus、caudate nucleus,其中对subthalamus控制时人是处于情绪控制状态,标准状态是情绪稳定下的状态,所谓的感性状态和理性状态的区分。人自己也能感觉到自己处于何种状态。),乃至于专门由temporal cortex控制的语言指令模式。 皮层控制模式是有框架的行为模式,substantia nigra控制模式是无框架的快乐向导模式,大脑两侧很有可能一个处于皮层控制模式,另一个处于substantia nigra控制模式。而处于皮层控制模式的半球控制另一个半球的控制模式,这就要看你固定的那个皮层控制模式遵循什么章法啦。思考到这里,我觉得core of the NAcc是与shell of the NAcc同样重要的核心,是人在DA状态下的行为控制,而shell of the NAcc是在ACh状态下的信息记忆控制。首先通过shell of the NAcc建立记忆数据,此时是substantia nigra控制模式,然后是通过core of the NAcc来实现记忆数据对行为的控制,这样一来,人在环境中学习,然后用学来的记忆控制自己的行为,别忘了人有两套这样的学习系统。NE状态是重要关键动作的强化?NE system与丘脑对应,难道是通过丘脑-皮层结构来强化一些关键记忆和动作?ACh system是对记忆和动作的瞬间调用?(我这里解决的仅仅是在客观世界的行为机制,而不涉及主观想象世界(规则的世界)的行为机制,因为还没有involve thalamic reticular nucleus和还被amygdala激发的dorsomedial thalamus。))
GABA is one of the main neurotransmitters in the NAcc, and GABA receptors are also abundant.[19][21]
Function: The nucleus accumbens core is involved in the cognitive processing of motor function related to reward andreinforcement.[6] Specifically, the core encodes new motor programs which facilitate the acquisition of a given reward in thefuture.[6]
Cell types
Approximately 95% of neurons in the NAcc are GABAergic medium spiny neurons (MSNs) which primarily express eitherD1-type or D2-type receptors;[12] about 1–2% of the remaining neuronal types are large aspiny cholinergic interneurons andanother 1–2% are GABAergic interneurons.[12] Compared to the GABAergic MSNs in the shell, those in the core have anincreased density of dendritic spines, branch segments, and terminal segments. From the core, the neurons project to othersub-cortical areas such as the globus pallidus and the substantia nigra. GABA is one of the main neurotransmitters in theNAcc, and GABA receptors are also abundant.[19][21] These neurons are also the main projection or output neurons of thenucleus accumbens.
Neurotransmitters
Dopamine: Dopamine is related to recreational drugs including amphetamines, cocaine, and morphine, which increaseextracellular levels of dopamine in both the NAc shell and the NAc core, but the effect of these increases is more pronouncedin the shell. Only amphetamine at high levels increases extracellular levels of dopamine to similar levels in both the shell andthe core. All of this points to a 'functional heterogeneity' in the nucleus accumbens between the shell region and the coreregion.[28] Similarly to drug rewards, non-drug rewards also increase levels of extracellular dopamine in the NAc shell, butdrug induced DA increase is more resilient to habituation when exposed repeatedly to drug-stimuli, unlike non-drug rewardingstimuli induced dopamine increases, which do succumb to habituation. Recent studies have shown that the repeated influenceof drug-inducing DA projection has an abnormal strengthening effect on stimulus-drug associations and increases the drug-reward stimuli’s resistance to extinction. This may be a contributing factor to addiction. This effect was more pronounced in theNAc shell than in the NAc core.[19][29]
Phenethylamine and tyramine: Phenethylamine and tyramine are trace amine compounds which are synthesized inseveral types of CNS neurons, including all dopamine neurons.[30] Specifically, these neurotransmitters act within thedopaminergic inputs to the NAcc. These substances regulate the presynaptic release of dopamine through their interactionswith VMAT2 and TAAR1, analogous to amphetamine.
Glucocorticoids and dopamine: Glucocorticoid receptors are the only corticosteroid receptors in the nucleus accumbensshell. L-DOPA, steroids, and specifically glucocorticoids are currently known to be the only known endogenous compounds that can induce psychotic problems, so understanding the hormonal control over dopaminergic projections with regards toglucocorticoid receptors could lead to new treatments for psychotic symptoms. A recent study demonstrated that suppressionof the glucocorticoid receptors led to a decrease in the release of dopamine, which may lead to future research involving anti-glucocorticoid drugs to potentially relieve psychotic symptoms.[31]
GABA: A recent study on rats that used GABA agonists and antagonists indicated that GABAA receptors in the NAc shellhave inhibitory control on turning behavior influenced by dopamine, and GABAB receptors have inhibitory control over turningbehavior mediated by acetylcholine.[19][32]
Glutamate: Studies have shown that local blockade of glutamatergic NMDA receptors in the NAcc core impaired spatiallearning.[33] Another study demonstrated that both NMDA and AMPA (both glutamate receptors) play important roles inregulating instrumental learning.[34]
Serotonin (5-HT): Overall, 5-HT synapses are more abundant and have a greater number of synaptic contacts in the NAcshell than in the core. They are also larger and thicker, and contain more large dense core vesicles than their counterparts inthe core.
Function
Reward and reinforcement
The nucleus accumbens, being one part of the reward system, plays an important role in processing rewarding stimuli,reinforcing stimuli (e.g., food and water), and those which are both rewarding and reinforcing (addictive drugs, sex, andexercise).[6][35] The nucleus accumbens is selectively activated during the perception of pleasant, emotionally arousingpictures and during mental imagery of pleasant, emotional scenes.[36][37] A 2005 study found that it is involved in theregulation of emotions induced by music,[38] perhaps consequent to its role in mediating dopamine release. The nucleusaccumbens plays a role in rhythmic timing and is considered to be of central importance to the limbic-motor interface(Mogensen).
In the 1950s, James Olds and Peter Milner implanted electrodes into the septal area of the rat and found that the rat chose topress a lever which stimulated it. It continued to prefer this even over stopping to eat or drink. This suggests that the area isthe "pleasure center" of the brain and is involved in reinforcement learning.[39] In rats, stimulation of the ventral tegmental areacauses the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens much in the same way as addictive drugs and natural reinforcers,such as water or food, initiate the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens.[40] The same results have been seen inhuman subjects in functional imaging studies. For example, increased dopamine concentration is seen in the extracellular fluidof the nucleus accumbens when subjects believed they were being given money, and increased activation (i.e., increasedfMRI BOLD signal-change) was observed among heterosexual males viewing pictures of attractive women.[41]
Aversion
Activation of D1-type MSNs in the nucleus accumbens is involved in reward, whereas the activation of D2-type MSNs in thenucleus accumbens promotes aversion.[4]
Maternal behavior
An fMRI study conducted in 2005 found that when mother rats were in the presence of their pups the regions of the braininvolved in reinforcement, including the nucleus accumbens, were highly active.[42] Levels of dopamine increase in thenucleus accumbens during maternal behavior, while lesions in this area upset maternal behavior.[43] When women arepresented pictures of unrelated infants, fMRIs show increased brain activity in the nucleus accumbens and adjacent caudatenucleus, proportionate to the degree to which the women find these infants "cute".[44]
Clinical significance
Addiction
Current models of addiction from chronic drug use involve alterations in gene expression in the mesocorticolimbic projection.[12][45][46] The most important transcription factors that produce these alterations are ΔFosB, cyclic adenosinemonophosphate (cAMP) response element binding protein (CREB), and nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB).[12] ΔFosB is the mostsignificant gene transcription factor in addiction since its viral or genetic overexpression in the nucleus accumbens isnecessary and sufficient for many of the neural adaptations seen in drug addiction;[12] it has been implicated in addictions toalcohol, cannabinoids, cocaine, nicotine, phenylcyclidine, opiates, and substituted amphetamines.[12][45][47] ΔJunD is thetranscription factor which directly opposes ΔFosB.[12] Increases in nucleus accumbens ΔJunD expression can reduce or, witha large increase, even block most of the neural alterations seen in chronic drug abuse (i.e., the alterations mediated byΔFosB).[12]
ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards, such as palatable food, sex, andexercise.[12][13] Natural rewards, like drugs of abuse, induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens, and chronic acquisition ofthese rewards can result in a similar pathological addictive state through ΔFosB overexpression.[12][13][35] Consequently,ΔFosB is the key transcription factor involved in addictions to natural rewards as well;[12][13][35] in particular, ΔFosB in thenucleus accumbens is critical for the reinforcing effects of sexual reward.[13] Research on the interaction between natural anddrug rewards suggests that psychostimulants and sexual behavior act on similar biomolecular mechanisms to induce ΔFosB inthe nucleus accumbens and possess cross-sensitization effects that are mediated through ΔFosB.[35][48]
Depression
In April 2007, two research teams reported on having inserted electrodes into the nucleus accumbens in order to use deep brain stimulation to treat severe depression.[49] In 2010, experiments reported that deep brain stimulation of the nucleusaccumbens was successful in decreasing depression symptoms in 50% of patients who did not respond to other treatmentssuch as electroconvulsive therapy.[50] Nucleus accumbens has also been used as a target to treat small groups of patientswith therapy-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder.[51]
Ablation
To treat addiction and in an attempt to treat mental illness radiofrequency ablation of the nucleus accumbens has beenperformed. The results are inconclusive and controversial.[52][53]
Placebo effect
Activation of the NAcc has been shown to occur in the anticipation of effectiveness of a drug when a user is given a placebo,indicating a contributing role of the nucleus accumbens in the placebo effect.