中世纪世界生活手册（十八）

2023-09-22 13:32 作者:神尾智代 0人读过 | 我要投稿

日常卫生

在中世纪，卫生沐浴并不像大多数现代评论家所认为的那样是一种罕见的活动。一些医学手册建议人们每天进行温水或冷水浴。卫生书籍建议每天用泉水洗脸、洗耳和洗手。特别是建议学生每天用井水而不是河水或湖水洗两次眼睛，这样既能保护视力，又能增强记忆力。还有人用玫瑰水、茴香籽水或小米草水（小米草是生长在欧洲的一种细小植物，自中古世纪以来，小米草就一直被当作补眼良方。英文称Eye Bright ，即是眼睛清晰明亮的意思，增强肝脏功能，促进净血过程，令视力更清晰，具有抗菌功效。另外，小米草也可纾缓眼干问题与及由伤风或过敏引起的眼睛多泪、酸痛和发痒的症状。有「可喝的眼药水」之称，维护视力的最佳草本）、颠茄水洗眼睛。

Hygienic bathing was not the rare activity during the medieval period that most modern critics assume. Some medical manuals recommended daily baths, warm or cold. Hygiene texts recommend daily washing of face, ears, and hands with fountain water. Students especially were counseled to bathe their eyes twice a day only in well water, rather than river or lake water, thereby preserving their sight and sharpening their memory. Others bathed their eyes in rosewater, fennel water, or eye bright, belladonna water.

如果年老或患有眼疾或受伤导致视力减退，在当时有一种流行的治疗方法，用蒸馏水浸泡马鞭草、甜菜碱、茴香、白葡萄酒、“Tintia”（找不到解释）、糖、芦荟、妇女的乳汁和樟脑。将干燥的植物磨碎，与液体浸泡 24 小时，然后过滤。这种洗眼液可以根据需要随意使用。

If old age or an eye disease or injury dimmed eyesight, a popular remedy was a medical recipe using distilled waters of vervane, betany, fennel, white wine, “Tintia,” sugar candy, Aloes Epatick, Woman’s Milk, and camphor. The dry ingredients were pulverized, infused with liquid for 24 hours, then strained. This eyewash could be freely used as needed.

为了牙齿健康，有一本健康手册建议人们剔牙和擦牙，但不要购买昂贵的洁齿剂。保持牙齿洁白无瑕和口气甜美的四条原则：（1）饭后要漱口；（2）睡觉时嘴巴要微微张开一些；（3）早上起来要吐掉当晚聚集在喉咙里的东西；（4）拿一块粗麻布擦拭牙唇和舌侧，以去除食物的“发酵味”（（fumosity）酒精饮料的气味，维基词典），这些食物会使牙齿腐烂并感染口气。用薄荷或留兰香水用力漱口两分钟，然后吐掉。

For healthy teeth a health manual recommended picking and rubbing them, but not buying expensive dentifrices. Four rules that kept teeth white and uncorrupt also sweetened breath: rule one, wash your mouth well after eating; second, sleep with your mouth somewhat open; third, spit in the morning whatever has gathered that night in your throat; fourth, take a coarse linen cloth and rub your teeth on their lip side and tongue side to take away “fumosity” of food that makes them rot and infects the breath. Swish peppermint or spearmint water vigorously for two minutes, then spit it out.

如果牙齿松动，有一种“比粉末更好”的漱口水可以紧固牙齿，用力擦洗口腔，使牙龈发声（可能是漱口时候发出的声响），并使从牙齿上脱落的牙龈肉长出来。配方包括半杯醋、等量的乳香树浸出液、迷迭香、末药、Armoniak（借用自中古法语“ammonic”，源自拉丁语“salamicus”（“阿蒙盐，氯化铵”））、龙血草和rocheallome（找不到解释）各一盎司、半盎司细肉桂、三杯泉水（当时的喷泉水对我们来说就像过滤水一样），混合均匀，用小火煮沸，然后加入半磅蜂蜜，去除浮渣，用一些安息香浸泡一刻钟后离火，待冷却后装入一个干净的瓶子里。饭前饭后都用这种液体洗牙，把它含在嘴里荡来荡去。这样做不仅对头部有益，还能使口气变得清爽。

If teeth loosened, a mouth water “better than powders” fastened them, scoured the mouth, made the gums sound, and caused gum flesh that had fallen away from the teeth to grow. The recipe consisted of half a glassful of vinegar; an equal amount of water of the mastic tree; one ounce each of rosemary, miror, Armoniak, dragon’s herb, and rocheallome; half an ounce of fine cinnamon; and three glasses of fountain water. Mix well, let boil over a small fire, and then add half a pound of honey, removing the scum. Steep with some Bengwine for a quarter-hour. Remove it from the fire. Cool the fluid and store it in a clean bottle. Wash teeth with this liquid dentifrice before food and after, holding it in the mouth and swishing it around. Doing so benefited the head as well as sweetened the breath.

摩擦是一种用力擦拭皮肤直至发热的行为。冬日清晨起床后，人们通过运动使四肢发热，并保持体液正常流动。手臂、手掌、腿、脚和背部的强力、剧烈伸展运动可将热量传导到身体外部，并提升记忆力。用象牙、骨或角制成的细梳子轻轻摩擦，上下、前后梳理头发，从前额到后颈轻轻刺激头皮，有助于提升记忆力。最好从手掌开始摩擦，然后用加热过的粗布擦拭身体，擦拭头部、颈部、乳房、腋窝、腹部、大腿和脚。轻轻擦拭乳房、背部和腹部，手臂、大腿和双腿则需要加大力度，直至发红发热。

Frication was the art of vigorously rubbing the skin until it heated. After rising on a winter morning, one exercised to heat extremities and to keep bodily fluids properly flowing. Strong, strenuous stretching of arms, hands, legs, feet, and back forced heat to the body’s outward parts and quickened memory. Soft frication by a fine comb of ivory, bone, or horn, combing hair up and down, forward and backward, gently stimulating the scalp from forehead to nape of neck, helped memory. Fricating was best started with the palms of the hands. Then one rubbed and chafed the body with a coarse warm cloth, rubbing head, neck, breasts, armpits, belly, thighs, and feet. Breast, back, and belly were fricated gently. Arms, thighs, and legs were fricated roughly until ruddy and warm.

沐浴

沐浴者的财富和智慧决定了浴场的多样性。室内和室外浴池在当时都很常见，设有温泉、矿泉和其他疗养水的健康水疗中心，也会创建室外温水浴池，裸浴者会用酒壶饮用疗养水。医疗水疗如此普遍，以至于一些城镇围绕医疗水疗发展经济。德国的巴特特尔茨(Bad Tölz)（如捷克共和国的玛丽亚温泉市和德国的巴登-巴登）、意大利的波佐利以及英国的巴斯都因水浴医疗而成为著名的疗养胜地。如今，医疗浴镇遗产——“水疗”（spa）这一通用名称依然存在，它最初来自比利时列日省的水疗镇。

Baths were as various as the wealth and ingenuity of bathers. Indoor and outdoor baths were common. Health spas with hot springs, mineral springs, and other healing waters created outdoor heated baths, their naked bathers drinking curing draughts from flagons. Medical spas were so common that some towns created their economies around them. The German Bad towns—for example, Marienbad and BadenBaden—Italy’s Puteoli or Pozzuoli, and Bath in England all reached their fame as health resorts thanks to their healing waters. One important medical bath town heritage endures today in the generic name spa originally from the town of Spa in the province of Liège, Belgium.

医生和医学手册建议病人在矫形浴池中浸泡和游泳。所有社会阶层，包括贵族、城镇居民和农民，都可以在海边、河岸、湖边、河床、温泉、水坑、天然池塘和人工水池的某个地方沐浴。运动员和病人或赤身裸体，或身着浴衣，或全副武装，进入令人愉悦的疗养水域。浴帽保护着男女的长发，人们或仰泳或俯泳，或爬泳或背泳，或漂浮，或踩水，或只是站着或坐在医用浴池的池水中。

Physicians and medical manuals advised patients to soak and to swim in orthopedic baths. All social classes, the nobility, townsfolk, and peasantry, could bathe somewhere on the ocean shore, riverbanks, lake fronts, streambeds, hot springs, water holes, natural ponds, and artificial pools. Sportsmen and patients entered pleasing, curative waters naked, wearing bathing garb, or fully clothed. Bathing caps protected long hair of both men and women. People swam prone or supine, crawled or back stroked, floated, treaded water, or simply stood or sat in the healing mineral waters of medical baths.

药浴可同时进行内浴和外浴，并饮用对矫正畸形有帮助的草药酒，如藜芦（Hellebore）、香蜂花（（学名：Melissa officinalis），又名柠檬香草（英语：lemon balm））、紫罗兰、常春藤、皱菊或Pimpernel（报春花科草本植物属 (Anagallis) 中的任何一种）。在意大利波佐利的水疗医疗水疗中心，病人寻求改善疾病症状、缓解伤痛或彻底治愈疾病。“To take the waters”和“to take a cure”指的就是去水疗中心。

Medicinal baths simultaneously could be internal as well as external with the drinking of a draught of orthopedically proper herbed wine such as hellebore, melissa, violet, ivy, bruisewort, or pimpernel. In the hydrotherapy medical spa in Italy at Puteoli, patients sought amelioration of disease symptoms, relief from pain of injury, or absolute cure. “To take the waters” and “to take a cure” meant to visit a spa.

意大利的波佐利和其他欧洲的医疗浴场通常有多座建筑供病人使用。有些浴场建在流水旁，设有更衣室、用于牵引和手工操作的桑拿房以及医疗餐厅。在热浴治疗中，病人和医生通常赤裸身体，在潮湿的蒸汽浴或干热桑拿浴中进行操作时也需要裸体。温暖的环境可以放松病人的肌肉和情绪，从而对治疗产生有利影响。建筑有时会横跨矿泉流，让人直接吸入刺鼻的气味，并直接泡进流动的泉水中。有些水疗中心的建筑将溪流从一侧到另一侧完全围住，以保护病人免受风雨侵袭。

Puteoli in Italy and other European medical baths customarily had multiple buildings to accommodate patients. Built beside the flowing waters, some had clothes-changing rooms, saunas for traction and manual manipulations, and medical dining halls. In orthopedic hot bath treatments both patient and physician often were nude. Nakedness was required by manipulations in moist steam vapor baths or dry heat saunas. Warmth relaxed patients’ muscles and moods to affect healing favorably. Buildings sometimes straddled the mineral stream, allowing direct inhaling of pungent odors and direct entrance into the flowing waters. Some spa buildings enclosed the stream altogether from side to side to protect patients from wind and weather.

病人从很远的地方前往某些浴场接受治疗，如果行动不便，可以乘坐家庭大篷车，或者独自参加公共安排的健康之旅。一些巨大的长方形水池在绘画中被描绘成欢乐的场所，水池边有一个名为“tentoria infirmorum”的帐篷，人们拄着拐杖、推着残疾人车和残疾用具在里面来回走动，这些水池中的水具有重塑健康与焕发青春的功能。

Patients traveled to certain baths from afar for healing, traveling alone if adequately mobile, in family caravans, or on publicly arranged health tours. Some gigantic rectangular pools depicted in paintings initially appearing to be places of joyous deportment have poolside tents called tentoria infirmorum in which people move to and fro with crutches, invalids’ carts, and paraphernalia of disability. Water in such pools functioned as a fountain of health and a fountain of youth.

修道院的地名中也有治愈之水与流动之水之称。例如，使用法语中“水”（eau）一词的熙笃会修道院有：里沃修道院（Rievaulx）、西托圣母修道院（Cîteaux）、克莱尔沃修道院（Clairvaux）和欧克莱尔（Eauclair）。特鲁瓦斯丰泰内和喷泉修道院等修道院则以著名的喷泉命名。朝圣之旅有时将世俗医学与神圣干预相结合，去坎特伯雷朝圣圣托马斯·贝克特（Saint Thomas à Becket）的同时，还要去附近的巴斯（Bath）。杰弗雷·乔叟笔下的朝圣者前往坎特伯雷是因为圣托马斯曾在教徒生病时帮助过他们。

Healing waters and flowing waters also were celebrated in place-names of monasteries. Cistercian monastic houses, for example, using the French word for water, eau, were Rievaulx, Cîteaux, Clairvaux, and Eauclair. Abbeys such as Trois Fontaines and Fountains Abbey were named after noted fountain springs. Pilgrimages sometimes combined secular medicine with divine intervention. A trip to Canterbury to Saint Thomas à Becket’s shrine was paired with a visit to nearby Bath. Chaucer’s pilgrims voyaged to Canterbury because Saint Thomas had helped them when they were sick.

沐浴、饮食是同时进行的医学疗法。在小水池的护栏上或大水池的池沿上摆放着一块医疗宴会板，上面摆放着医学上认可的草药、肉类、水果和酒。

Bathing, food, and drink were simultaneous medical therapies. A medical banquet board spread athwart the gunwales of the smaller pools or arranged along the coping of the larger ones contained medically sanctioned herbs, meats, fruits, and wines.

浴室供暖

室内健康水疗池（水温和环境空气温度可控）。中世纪的一些矿泉是热泉，而一些地方则使用高效的热水器持续提供温水。在更华丽的澡堂里，先进的中央供暖系统配有管道，浴室下方或旁边的巨型火炉可以加热水和空气。

Indoor health spas-controlled temperatures of water and ambient air. Some medieval mineral springs were thermal, hot springs, while elsewhere gently warmed laving waters were made with an efficient water heater. Sophisticated central heating systems in more elaborate bathhouses had effective plumbing. Giant furnaces beneath or alongside the bath rooms heated their water and air.

其他浴池则有内置的琉璃瓦高炉或带热石的干式加热器。一些室内浴池的内部设计和陈设与斯堪的纳维亚桑拿浴室相似，有一个干热炉、用于擦拭的粗糙纹理布、促进血液循环的拂子，以及一壶用于加湿空气的水。

Other baths had indwelling glazed-tile tall stoves or dry heaters with hot stones. Some indoor baths resembled interior designs and furnishings of Scandinavian saunas with a hot, dry-heat furnace, roughly textured cloths for friction, whisks and switches to stimulate circulation, and a kettle of water to humidify the air.

埃博利的彼得（Pietro da Eboli）于 1220 年撰写了关于普特奥利浴场美德的精彩诗篇《普特奥利浴场美德》（De Virtutis Balneorum Puteolanis），其中描述了疗养帐篷，并对足浴、臂浴和舒缓臀部的坐浴（Sitzbad）或座浴进行了评论。有些浴池有盖子和帘子，以保护个人隐私。浴帘还能防止冷气流进入，减缓热水浴的蒸发，将热量和蒸汽保留在浴池内，以便浴者吸收热水中香料、矿物质和草药的有益成分。精美的浴帘还能让人精神振奋。

Pietro da Eboli’s wonderful versified treatise on the virtues of the Puteoli baths, De Virtutis Balneorum Puteolanis, written in 1220, described the infirmary tent and remarked on the foot bath, arm bath, and bottom-soothing sitzbad, or seat bath. Some baths were covered and curtained for desired or required privacy. Curtains also protected against drafts and slowed evaporation of a hot bath, retaining within their boundaries the steam and vapors for inhaling beneficent spices, minerals, and herbs in the hot water. The beauty of bath curtains also could raise one’s spirits.

有一本沐浴书籍推荐了一种带帘子的浴池，要求病人坐在一块巨大的海绵上，浸泡在非常热的燕麦浴中，燕麦浴中含有 19 种药用成分，包括黄连、冬青、苦参或金雀花。其他用于净化皮肤的药浴使用的是加有细碎甜瓜泥的水，特别是从撒马尔罕进口到欧洲的samarcandi。撒马尔罕是中亚最古老的城市，也是中西方文化的交汇地，亚历山大大帝征服了撒马尔罕，帖木儿把撒马尔罕作为蒙古人的首都。无论疾病、烦恼、悲伤或痛苦，药浴都能让人重新焕发活力。

One bath text recommended a curtained enclosure requiring the patient to sit on a giant sponge in a very hot oatmeal bath with 19 medicinal ingredients including pellitory, hollyhock, and bruisewort or pimpernel. Other baths for purifying skin used water with finely pureed melon, especially samarcandi, imported to Europe from Samarkand, the oldest city in Central Asia and cultural meeting place between China and the West, which Alexander the Great conquered and Tamerlane made his Mongol capital. Whatever the disease, vexation, grief, or pain, medicinal baths might make one hale and whole again.

除了刺激性食物和水之外，最后一个水疗成分是性。情欲的快乐不仅仅是放纵。性生活受挫不利于心理健康和肌肉康复。快乐的情侣们除了浴帽和珠宝外一丝不挂，有时三对情侣同时坐在天鹅绒浴缸里，浴缸前摆放着一张盛有壮阳食物和饮料的宴会桌。

A final hydrotherapy component added to stimulating food and water was sex. The pleasures of Venus were not simply sybaritic indulgence. Thwarted sexuality was bad for mental health and muscle healing. Joyful couples, stark naked save for hats and jewels, sometimes sat three pairs at a time in a velvet-curtained bathing tub in front of which was set a banquet table with aphrodisiac foods and drinks.

狩猎

在 14 和 15 世纪的英格兰和法国，猎鹿人通常穿着厚重的皮质绑腿，以保护腿部免受荆棘的伤害，夏天穿着绿色外套猎鹿，冬天穿着毛皮外套追赶野猪。脖子上挂着用来召唤猎犬的猎号，腰带上挂着剥鹿皮用的匕首和杀野味用的长剑。狩猎时，猎人会骑三匹马，其中两匹用于接力。戴着皮手套的手上拿着一根皮绳，用来敲击马镫，催促猎犬追击猎物。

In 14th- and 15th-century England and France, a stag hunter customarily wore heavy leather leggings to protect his legs from thorns and brambles, a green jacket in summer for stag hunting, and a fur jacket in winter for chasing wild boar. Around his neck he hung his hunting horn used for calling the hounds. At his belt were a dagger for skinning the stag and a long sword for killing game. During the hunt he used three horses, two for relays. In his leather-gloved hand he carried a leather thong to strike his stirrup to urge on the hounds.

狩猎大师负责监督所有的狩猎助手和马夫，同时还负责管理猎群和后备猎犬。他了解每只寻血猎犬和灰猎犬，根据猎犬的品质和缺点决定它们在猎群中的位置。如果猎犬误入歧途，狩猎主人负责将它们引回正确的气味处。如果他自己看到了雄鹿，他必须注意不要惊吓到雄鹿。他会一直盯着猎狗，如果猎狗累了，就催促它们，或者从挂在鞍座上的麻袋里拿出面包喂它们。

A hunt master supervising all hunting assistants and grooms also ruled the pack and the reserve dogs. Knowing each bloodhound and greyhound, he decided where each ran in the pack depending upon the animal’s qualities and shortcomings. The hunt master was responsible for leading the hounds back to the correct scent if they had gone astray. If seeing a stag himself, he had to take care not to frighten it. His eyes were always on the dogs, which he urged on or fed bread from a sack hanging from his saddle pommel if they tired.

如果猎狗在尘土飞扬的小路上或在草被烧焦的田野里跟丢了雄鹿，或雄鹿越过了水域，狩猎大师就会下马寻找踪迹。在猎狗将雄鹿逼到墙角后，优秀的狩猎者会用剑杀死这只受惊、疲惫、气喘吁吁的动物。

If the hounds lost the stag on a dusty track or in a field where the grass had been burned, or if the stag crossed water, the hunt master dismounted to look for the trail. After the hounds cornered the stag, the good huntsman would kill the frightened, tired, breathless animal with his sword.

狩猎的主人用号角发出信号，告知同伴雄鹿已死。骑士和身份地位高贵的猎人用号角回应。猎狗们目视着给雄鹿分尸和剥皮的仪式。仆人们剪下长长的树枝，用来捆绑肉块。其他人则把战利品放在树叶床上，肚子朝上。他们用锋利的刀子剥皮，首先剥去肩部和臀部、胸部和腹部，然后剥去背部，并注意始终让身体靠在皮上。

The master of the hunt sounded the death cry of the stag on his horn. Riders and noble hunters replied on their horns. Dogs watched the ritual quartering and skinning of the stag. Servants cut and pruned long branches upon which to carry pieces of meat. Others placed the prize animal on a bed of leaves, stomach upward. With sharp knives they skinned it. First they bared shoulders and haunches, breast and stomach, and then the back, taking care always to keep the body resting on the skin.

四分解剖法开始时，先割掉睾丸和舌头，然后是肩膀，再打开胃部，取出肝脏和肾脏，掏出内脏和内脏，臀部被切开。最后，头部被砍下，精选的部分被串在树枝上，用粗壮的肩膀运往贵族厨房。

Quartering began with testicles and tongue cut out first, then shoulders. Then the stomach was opened to remove the liver and kidneys and to empty the viscera and entrails. The haunches were cut up. Finally, the head was cut off. The choicest pieces were strung on a branch and carried on stout shoulders to the noble kitchen.

狩猎音乐会有时会持续一整天。刺耳的号角声和呼唤狩猎者的嘹亮号角声打破了森林的宁静。通常由鞭手发号施令，首席狩猎者在喊叫声、嘶鸣声和犬吠声的伴奏下吹响第一个音符。马夫们大声呼喊，鼓励他们的猎犬。当猎犬群嗅到错误的气味时，号角就会发出两声长鸣，将刚愎自用的猎犬召回，让它们沿着正确的路线前进。三声长鸣告诉猎人们线索正确。仅两个音符就意味着猎物甩掉了猎狗。MORT（当鹿被杀死时狩猎号角所发出的音符）则是一个长音，紧接着是几个短促的爆破声，预示着猎物即将死去。傍晚日落时分，疲惫的猎人和猎狗会被三声长长的撤退声召集起来。

Hunt music concerts sometimes lasted throughout the day. The silence of the forest was pierced by the harsh blare of trumpets and the loud strident hunting horns calling the huntsmen. Usually the whipper-in gave the order, and the chief huntsman sounded the first notes accompanied by shouts, neighs, and barks. Grooms shouted rallying cries of encouragement to their hounds. When the pack was on the wrong scent, the horn rallied back the headstrong with two long notes and set them off on the proper trail. Three long blasts told hunters the trail was good. Two notes alone meant the game had shaken off the dogs. The mort, sounding the impending death of the animal, was one long note followed by several short blasts. In the evening at sunset, tired hunters and hounds were called to assembly by three long notes of the withdrawal.

约翰·伍顿 (John Wootton) 于 1728 年左右在里沃克斯 (Rievaulx) 绘制了一场狩猎聚会，邓科姆 (Duncombe) 家族的客人在场。背景中的工人在梯子上工作以修复废墟（耶鲁大学英国艺术中心（保罗·梅隆收藏））

诱捕野狼

在捕杀狼的四种主要方法中，最简单的是树苗捕狼器。狼闻到了作为诱饵的腐肉的气味。尽管狼天生谨慎，但饥饿还是驱使它走进陷阱。在一棵弯曲倒地的树苗末端打一个绳结，用一根木桩固定在那里，狼把头伸进无形的绳结里，陷阱会把它从地上提起来，让它挂在树枝上。狩猎者随后将其杀死。

Of four major ways for trapping and killing a wolf, the simplest was the sapling wolf trap. The wolf smelled carrion left as bait. Despite the wolf’s inherent prudence, hunger drove it into the trap. A running knot placed at the end of a sapling bent to the ground and held there by a stake caught the wolf putting its head into the invisible slip knot, lifted it off the ground, and left it hanging from the branches of the tree. Huntsmen then killed it.

另一种杀死狼的方法是在坑里铺满腐肉。当附近有狼出没时，狩猎者会杀一头牛，沿着小路把牛的尸体拖到一个圆锥形的深坑里。把牛的尸体扔进坑里，用树枝把坑盖住，中间开一个小洞，让牛的气味散发出去。走近坑边的狼会掉进洞里，用叉棍顶住它的脖子就能把它活捉，然后带到村子里展示并杀死。

Another way to kill a wolf was to line a pit with carrion. When wolves were in the neighborhood, huntsmen killed a cow, dragging its quarters along paths to a deep conical pit. The carcass thrown in and the pit covered with branches, a small hole in the middle allowed the animal’s odor to escape. The suspicious wolf that approached the pit edge would fall down the hole, from which it could be taken alive by holding its neck against the ground with a forked stick, then taken to the village, exhibited, and killed.

针是困住狼的另一种方法。狼的凶残只有人类的残忍才能与之媲美，狼在农场的恶行将人类的残忍推向了极致。这种残忍的方法首先是将小块的肉塞进弯针或鱼钩，有序地排成一排或串成几排。当一只狼在附近时，其他狼也会赶来。在森林里拖着没有带刺的肉块，散发着食物的香味。带刺的肉被留在选定的地点。饥肠辘辘的狼没有咀嚼就吞下肉块，然后被钩子和针刺撕裂内脏而死。

Needles were another way to trap a wolf. A wolf’s ferocity was equaled only by man’s cruelty pushed to its limits by a wolf’s misdeeds on the farm. This loathsome method began with small chunks of meat stuffed with curved needles or fishhooks placed in an orderly line or strung out in several rows. When one wolf was nearby, others also arrived. Unspiked meat dragged along the ground in the forest spread the scent of food. Spiked meat was left at the selected spot. Famished wolves swallowed the meat chunks without chewing and then died when their insides were torn apart by the hooks and needles.

为了更利索地活捉狼，仆人们修建了两道粗大的同心荆条环形栅栏，每道栅栏都有六英尺多高。外围栅栏上有一扇门，门上有坚固的门闩。将腐肉块穿过森林拖到围栏前，然后在最里面的围栏里放上一只绵羊或山羊作为诱饵。在腐肉气味的诱惑下，狼进入外围围栏，绕着围栏转了一圈，希望找到通往内围围栏的入口，以获取猎物。一旦它推开门，门就会在它身后关上，使它既得不到猎物，也失去了自由。

To take a wolf alive more neatly, servants built two thick concentric wattle circular fences, each over six feet high. On the outer fence was a door with a strong catch. After dragging pieces of rotting meat through the forest up to the enclosure, a sheep or goat was placed as bait in the innermost enclosure. Tempted by the smell of the carrion, the wolf entered the outer enclosure and went around it hoping to find an entrance to the inner one to get the prey. Once it pushed open the door, it closed behind it, depriving it both of the prey and of its freedom.

诱捕水獭

水獭和海狸，就像肉或鱼一样，令人垂涎欲滴。许多禁止吃肉的修道院食谱中都允许食用水獭多汁的尾巴，这种尾巴和海狸的尾巴一样，都是看起来像鱼、吃起来也像鱼的美味佳肴。

Otter, like beaver, was delectable as both flesh and fish. Many monastic dietaries forbidding eating meat allowed the succulent tail that, like the beaver’s, was a delicacy looking and tasting like fish.

猎人们盯着水獭沿着水边从一棵树滑到另一棵树，把鼻子伸进高高的芦苇之间，看着鳟鱼和鳊鱼在石头和沙子铺成的河床上滑行。水獭会突然潜入水底，它的蹼使它在水下行动敏捷，很少有鱼能逃过它锋利的牙齿。然后，它悄无声息地来到河流、鱼塘和水池的领地，那里有猎人在等着它。水獭轻轻一跃，就到了水下。不幸的是，如果它没有看到从河岸延伸到河岸的渔网，尽管它拼命用牙齿撕扯渔网，还是会被抓住，成为追捕者长矛和三叉戟的祭品。

Hunters watched the otter slipping from tree to tree along the water’s edge, pushing its nose between the tall reeds and watching the stream where trout and roach glided along the bed of stones and sand. Suddenly the otter would dive, its webbed feet making it so speedy and quick underwater that few fish escaped its needle-sharp teeth. Then it would pad silently to its domain of rivers, fish ponds, and pools, where hunters awaited it. With a leap the otter was underwater. But if it had not seen the net stretched from bank to bank, in its desperate flight despite its efforts to tear the mesh with its teeth, it would be caught and made an offering to the pikes and tridents of its pursuers.

通常在夜晚，水獭会离开水域，在池边游荡、觅食和排泄。但在黎明时分，猎人和猎犬会发现水獭的踪迹，而马夫们会把铅重的渔网从岸边撒到水獭领地的上方和下方。水獭感应到动静就躲到了水边的大树根下。在马夫的喊声和狗叫声的催促下，水獭会消失在水下。驻扎在两岸的猎人会试着用三叉戟刺它。即使没有刺中，水獭也会落入网中，等待它的是猎人。猎人把水獭的尸体拖到岸边，剥皮，把肉煮熟，喂给急切的狗吃。

Customarily at night the otter left the water to roam, feed, and defecate by the pool’s edge. But at dawn the hunters and bloodhounds picked up its trail while the grooms spread the lead-weighted nets from one bank to another, both above and below the otter’s territory. When alerted, the otter took refuge under a large root at the water’s edge. Urged on by shouts of grooms and barks of dogs, the otter would disappear underwater. Hunters stationed on both banks would try to spear it with tridents. Even if they missed, the otter ended up in the net, where killers awaited it. The body was dragged to the bank, skinned, and flesh cooked and fed to the eager dogs.

猴、鹰和猎犬

猴子被当作宠物饲养，骑在杂技演员和城市广场上的艺人的肩上，或坐在女士的腿上。猴子是如此普遍，甚至连桥上的收费员也允许猴子免费通行，因为他们会向每个过桥的人和所有过桥的商品收钱。在巴黎，猴子是可以出售的。过桥的商人如果想卖掉自己的猴子，需要支付四个硬币。但如果猴子属于买来消遣的人，则不收费。如果猴子在收费员面前表演，则猴子的饲养人及其携带的所有物品均免费过桥。同样，吟游诗人（中世纪法国的专业讲故事者或公共艺人，通常与游吟诗人没有什么区别）也是免费通过的，只是要唱一首歌。

Monkeys were kept as pets to ride on shoulders of acrobats, entertainers in the town square, and to sit on ladies’ laps. Monkeys were so commonplace that even toll collectors on the bridges who solicited money from each person and for all merchandise passing over them allowed monkeys to go free. In Paris monkeys were available for sale. A merchant crossing a bridge would pay four coins if he intended to sell his monkeys. But if the monkeys belonged to someone who bought them for amusement, then no toll was charged. If monkeys performed before the toll guard, their keeper and everything that he carried passed over the bridge for free. Similarly, a jongleur passed without payment except for a snatch of song.

好猎手会遛鹰。用猎鹰或大鹰狩猎的猎人会训练幼鹰骑在腕上，戴上头罩、铃铛和饰物，并逐渐习惯街上的活动和喧闹。没有什么能像在城市中艰难漫步那样，把鹰驯养得如此适合森林和田野。此后，很少有森林的声音或狩猎的危险打扰到猎鹰的宁静，它骑在进入法庭、教堂或市场的男人或女人的手腕上。鹰是白天和黑夜的伴侣。有些人会让鹰栖息在街道上，以便让它看到人、马、车和猎犬，并让它习惯这些。

A good hunter walked his hawk. A hunter who hunted with a falcon or goshawk trained the young bird to ride the wrist; wear a hood, bells, and jesses; and grow accustomed to the activity and bustling of the street. Nothing tamed a hawk so beautifully for the forest and fields as a strenuous walk through the city. Few forest sounds or perils of the hunt thereafter disturbed the tranquility of the falcon that had ridden the wrist of a man or woman entering a law court, church, or market. Hawks were companions both day and night. Some would perch the hawk in the streets in order for it to see and become accustomed to people, horses, carts, and hounds.

尽管马夫习惯于在猎犬舍中与上等猎犬一起进食、锻炼和睡觉，但猎人也习惯于在自家花园、城市广场、桥梁和公路上遛他的猎犬。治疗动物疾病是畜牧业的重要组成部分。狗，尤其是猎狗的常见病，可以通过药物和手术治疗。人们认为狗和人一样容易生病。不运动对动物来说是致命的。每天早上和晚上，马夫都要把狗从狗窝里牵出来，让它们在围栏里跑一圈，然后用咖喱梳子、刷子和稻草为猎狗梳毛，最后把它们交给猎狗主人或主要猎人。马夫和驯马师一般用皮带遛狗。他们需要采摘通便的草药，使动物的肠道系统得到良好的调节。

Though it was customary for a groom to feed, exercise, and sleep in a hound house with fine dogs, a hunter customarily exercised his brachets and hunting hounds in his own garden, in the town square, on bridges, and on highways. Treating diseases of animals was an important part of animal husbandry. Common diseases of dogs, particularly hunting dogs, were treated with medication and surgery. Dogs were thought as susceptible to disease as people were. Inactivity was thought deadly to animals. Grooms were required to take dogs out of their kennels each morning and night, run them around the enclosures, and then with curry combs, brushes, and straw prepare the hounds before presenting them to the master of hounds or the main hunter. Grooms and trainers walked dogs on leashes. They were required to pick laxative herbs to keep the animals’ intestinal systems well regulated.

富瓦伯爵和贝恩子爵加斯顿·菲布斯（Gaston Phebus，1331-91 年）在他的狩猎手册《狩猎之书》（Le Livre de la chasse）中详细介绍了如何照顾生病的狗。如果一只狗突然变得哑巴、衰弱或昏昏欲睡；或者如果一只狗不再咬人、食欲不振、啜泣、双腿无力、一直想躺下；或者如果它开始声嘶力竭地吠叫，它就会被认为患有狂犬病。所有的人都会小心那条狗，防止被咬伤。猎犬会被隔离起来，接受草药和药物治疗，直到痊愈或死亡。

Gaston Phebus (1331–91), the count of Foix and viscount of Bearn, gave detailed advice on caring for diseased dogs in his hunting manual, Le Livre de la chasse (The Book of Hunting). If a dog suddenly became mute, debilitated, or sleepy; or if a dog no longer bit, lost its appetite, slavered, was weak on his legs, and forever wanted to lie down; or if he began to bark hoarsely, he was deemed to be suffering from rabies. All people would beware that dog’s bite. The hound was kept in isolation and treated with herbs and medications until it was cured or died.

人们认为疥癣是长期劳累狩猎以及眼睛、耳朵、喉咙和爪子受伤后引起的疾病。如果狗的爪子肿了，马夫或主人就会把狗的脚浸泡在盛有薰衣草、迷迭香和甘菊叶的温水中。爪子被荆棘或戈壁割伤需要兽医专家的治疗。肩膀脱臼最好由整形外科医生和接骨师处理，断肢则要用马具悬吊起来。

Mange was thought to be a condition brought on after long tiring hunts and injuries to the eye, ear, throat, and paws. If a dog had swollen paws, the groom or owner soaked the dog’s feet in a vessel of warm water with leaves of lavender, rosemary, and chamomile. Paws flayed on thorns or gorse needed veterinary experts. Dislocated shoulders were best handled by orthopedists and bone setters, and broken limbs were suspended in harnesses.

加斯顿·菲布斯（Gaston Phebus）赞美忠诚是好狗的主要品质，这种高尚的美德让狗胜过其他所有取悦于人的动物。例如，莱昂尼斯国王阿波罗的灰猎犬从卢瓦尔河河床上拖出了它被谋杀的主人的尸体，用自己的爪子挖出一座坟墓，再用爪子回填坟墓，然后守护了六个月。智慧、服从、本能和记忆力让狗在狩猎场上大显身手。与人的天赋一样，狗的行为也是从婴儿时期就开始培养和训练的。

Gaston Phebus celebrated faithfulness as a principal quality of a good dog, a noble virtue placing dogs over all other animals that please people. For instance, the greyhound of King Apollo of Leonis dragged the body of his murdered master from the bed of the Loire River, dug his grave with his own claws, and with his paws covered it and then guarded it for six months. Intelligence, obedience, instinct, and memory made dogs magnificent in the hunting field. As with the talents of people, dogs’ behavior was cultivated and trained from infancy.

Jongleur（中世纪法国的专业讲故事者或公共艺人，通常与游吟诗人没有什么区别）

资源推荐

1、Middle English Compendium（中古英语纲要）

中古英语纲要包含三个中古英语电子资源：中古英语词典、中古英语散文和诗歌参考书目以及中古英语散文和诗歌语料库。

（官网自称是世界上最大的可搜索中古英语词汇和用法数据库，收录 1100-1500 年间的中古英语词汇和用法。）

网址：https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary（需要梯子）

2、林美香：《十六、十七世纪欧洲的礼仪书及其研究》，《台大历史学报》，2012年第49期，第157-212页。

论文网址：

（1）https://scholars.lib.ntu.edu.tw/bitstream/123456789/628491/1/%E5%8D%81%E5%85%AD%E3%80%81%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%83%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E6%AD%90%E6%B4%B2%E7%9A%84%E7%A6%AE%E5%84%80%E6%9B%B8%E7%B1%8D%E5%8F%8A%E5%85%B6%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6.pdf（不用梯子）

（2）https://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/bitstream/140.119/61809/1/157-212.pdf（不用梯子）