【简译】东非的葡萄牙人
The Portuguese first took an interest in East Africa from the beginning of the 16th century as their empire spread eastwards across the Indian Ocean. Trade in the region was already well-established and carried out by Africans, Indians, and Arabs. Attacks on the trading cities of the Swahili Coast and the Kingdom of Mutapa by the Portuguese did not bring any tangible benefits as traders simply moved to the north. Consequently, the Europeans decided to concentrate on the area which became Portuguese East Africa (aka Portuguese Mozambique) further south. Mozambique was settled by Portuguese who integrated with local communities in the country's interior. Mozambique remained a Portuguese colony until independence was achieved in 1975.
16 世纪初，葡萄牙人开始对东非产生了兴趣，当时他们的帝国向东横跨印度洋。非洲人、印度人和阿拉伯人已经在该地区建立了良好的贸易体系。葡萄牙人对斯瓦希里海岸和穆塔帕王国贸易城市的攻击并没有带来任何实际的好处，因为商人只是转移到了北方。因此，欧洲人决定将注意力集中在后来成为葡属东非（又名葡属莫桑比克）的更南地区。莫桑比克曾是葡萄牙人的殖民地，葡萄牙人与该国内陆的当地社区融为一体，在 1975 年实现独立之前一直是葡萄牙的殖民地。
斯瓦希里海岸
The Swahili Coast, located on the shores of East Africa, was a region where Africans, Arabs, and Muslim traders mixed to create a unique identity from the 8th century called Swahili Culture. Swahili is the name of their language and means 'people of the coast.' The coast prospered from the 12th to 15th century thanks to its profusion of small islands and natural harbours. 35 independent trading cities like Mombasa, Mogadishu, and Zanzibar established lucrative trade contacts with African tribes in the interior and states across the Indian Ocean such as Arabia, India, and even China. Gold, ivory, tortoise shells, animal hides, and slaves came from Africa’s interior to be traded for Asian goods like silk, spices, incense, Ming porcelain, glassware, coral, and jewellery.
位于东非海岸的斯瓦希里海岸是非洲、阿拉伯和穆斯林商人混合的地区，从8世纪开始创造了一种独特的身份，称为斯瓦希里文化。斯瓦希里是他们语言的名称，意思是 “海岸的人民”。由于大量的小岛和天然良港，海岸在 12 世纪和 15 世纪之间繁荣起来。蒙巴萨、摩加迪沙、桑给巴尔等35个贸易城市与非洲内陆部落以及阿拉伯、印度乃至中国等大洋彼岸的国家建立了有利可图的贸易往来。黄金、象牙、龟甲、兽皮和奴隶来自非洲内陆，用来换取亚洲商品，如丝绸、香料、熏香、明代瓷器、玻璃器皿、珊瑚和珠宝。
Then, in the final years of the 15th century, the Portuguese arrived to upset this century-old balance of trade. The first momentous move in this game of empires came with the 1498-1499 voyage of Vasco da Gama (c. 1469-1524). The Portuguese explorer had audaciously sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and up the east coast of Africa before sailing east to India. He thus opened up a maritime route between Europe and India, but he had also noted the trade ships laden with valuables anchored in the African Swahili ports.
15 世纪末，葡萄牙人到来，打破了已有数百年历史的贸易平衡。1498 年至 1499 年，瓦斯科·达·伽马 (Vasco de Gama，约 1469-1524 年) 开始了这场帝国博弈的第一次重要运动。这位葡萄牙探险家大胆地绕过好望角，沿着非洲东海岸航行，然后向东航行到印度。他因此开辟了欧洲和印度之间的海上航线，但他也注意到了停泊在非洲斯瓦希里港口的满载贵重物品的商船。
From 1502, the Portuguese were intent on muscling in on the region’s trade, and they set about sinking ships, destroying cities, and building forts to achieve that goal. The Portuguese had a secondary objective in their attacks in East Africa, and this was to damage the Islamic world in any way possible. The Swahili Coast was very much a Muslim-dominated area of Africa, as noted by the historian P. Curtin: "The Muslim religion ultimately became one of the central elements of Swahili identity. To be a Swahili, in later centuries, meant to be a Muslim" (125).
从1502年开始，葡萄牙人就打算介入该地区的贸易，他们开始击沉船只，摧毁城市，并建造堡垒以实现这一目标。葡萄牙人在东非的攻击有一个次要目标，那就是对伊斯兰世界造成尽可能多的破坏。斯瓦希里海岸在很大程度上是一个以穆斯林为主的非洲地区，正如历史学家菲利普·迪尔蒙·柯丁所指出：“穆斯林宗教最终成为斯瓦希里人身份认同的核心要素之一。在后来的几个世纪里，成为一名斯瓦希里人就意味着成为穆斯林”（125）。
Those who followed in Vasco da Gama’s wake sought one thing: total control of the Indian Ocean trade network. The Portuguese had superior weapons, and they used them to cause havoc amongst the Swahili city-states whose rivalries (for example, between the sultans of Malindi and Mombasa) prevented them from forming a unified response to this new and deadly threat. Achieving dominance with relative ease in the region, Portuguese settlers and merchants would eventually establish themselves at various points along the Swahili coast such as Malindi, Mombasa, Pemba, Sofala, and Kilwa. Many non-Portuguese traders continued their commerce, too, as the Portuguese found they could not police the entire Ocean, and cooperation proved more lucrative than confrontation.
那些追随瓦斯科·达·伽马的人正在寻求一件事：完全控制印度洋贸易网络。葡萄牙人拥有先进的武器，他们利用这些武器在斯瓦希里城邦中造成破坏，这些城邦之间的竞争（例如，马林迪苏丹和蒙巴萨苏丹之间的竞争）阻止了他们对这一致命的新威胁做出统一反应。相对容易地控制了该地区后，葡萄牙定居者和商人将在斯瓦希里海岸的各个地方定居，例如马林迪、蒙巴萨、奔巴岛、索法拉和基尔瓦。许多非葡萄牙商人也继续从事商业活动，因为葡萄牙人发现他们无法控制整个大洋，而合作证明比对抗更有利可图。
The Portuguese established colonies in India, notably at Portuguese Goa (1510), which became the capital of the Estado da India (the Portuguese Empire east of the Cape of Good Hope). The Portuguese fully intended to control both sides of the Indian Ocean. As more colonies were established in India, the Swahili Coast was repeatedly attacked from these bases. Already in 1505, the city of Kilwa was blasted into ruins by Portuguese cannons, taken over, and refortified. Fortresses were built along the coast of East Africa, notably at Sofala in 1505, Mozambique Island in 1507, and Shama in 1526.
葡萄牙人在印度建立了殖民地，特别是在葡萄牙果阿（1510年），果阿成为殖民印度（好望角以东的葡萄牙帝国）的基地。葡萄牙人完全打算控制印度洋的两岸。随着更多的殖民地在印度的建立，斯瓦希里海岸屡次从这些基地受到攻击。早在1505年，基尔瓦城就被葡萄牙人的大炮炸成了废墟，再次被征服并加固，堡垒遍布非洲东海岸。（1505 年索法拉、1507 年莫桑比克岛、1526 年沙马）
In 1536, the port of Massawa in the Kingdom of Abyssinia (aka the Ethiopian Empire) was captured. The ruler of Abyssinia was not too upset at the loss as he acquired firearms from the Europeans, which proved useful in his own battles with rival forces in the region. The Portuguese were delighted to find Abyssinia a Christian kingdom and an ally against what seemed an Islamic-dominated East Africa. Things went well at first when, in 1543, the Portuguese helped the Ethiopians defeat the armies of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (c. 1506-1543), leader of the Adal Sultanate in the north. Unfortunately, the Jesuit missionaries from Portugal and indigenous Coptic priests in Abyssinia became anything but allies, and a civil war brought about the expulsion of the Europeans.
1536年，阿比西尼亚王国（又称埃塞俄比亚帝国）的马萨瓦港被占领。阿比西尼亚的统治者对这一损失并不感到沮丧，因为他从欧洲人那里获得了火器，事实证明这些火器在他自己与该地区敌对势力的战斗中很有用。葡萄牙人很高兴地发现阿比西尼亚是一个基督教王国，并且是对抗看似由伊斯兰教主导的东非的盟友。1543年，葡萄牙人帮助埃塞俄比亚人击败了北部阿达尔苏丹国领袖艾哈迈德·伊本·易卜拉欣·加齐（Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi，约1506-1543）的军队，起初事情进展顺利。不幸的是，来自葡萄牙的耶稣会传教士和阿比西尼亚的本土科普特教士发生冲突，内战以驱逐欧洲人而告终
A much more serious flaw in Portugal’s foreign policy in the region was the total lack of interest in establishing any mutually beneficial trade arrangements with the Swahili cities or interior African kingdoms. The ports the Portuguese held were essentially mere collecting points for commodities. Nor was any lasting form of administration established. The Portuguese merely wanted to extract everything and anything of value at as little cost as possible, preferably zero. As the Portuguese presence grew, so they were able to take an even more aggressive stance against rival traders. Ships were blown out of the water, and trade goods were confiscated. The result of this rapacious policy was that traders moved northwards, and the Swahili coast went into serious decline.
葡萄牙在该地区的外交政策有一个更严重的缺陷，就是完全没有兴趣与斯瓦希里城市或非洲内陆王国建立互惠互利的贸易协定。葡萄牙港口只是货物的储存点，没有建立任何类型的长期管理机构。葡萄牙人想要的无非就是以尽可能低的成本，最好是零成本，榨取任何有价值的东西。随着影响力的扩大，他们能够对商业竞争对手采取更激进的立场。船只被击沉，商品被没收。这种贪婪政策的结果是商人北迁，斯瓦希里海岸陷入深度衰落。
穆塔帕
As traders drifted away, the Portuguese then went for the next best thing, which was to find the goods at the source. To this end, in 1530 they took a greater interest in the Kingdom of Mutapa in the far south (modern northern Zimbabwe and southern Zambia). The Bantu-speaking Shona peoples of Mutapa (established c. 1450) had inherited the region’s trade network from its predecessor Great Zimbabwe (c. 1100 - c. 1550). Goods from Mutapa, like gold and ivory, were traded with Sofala, an outpost controlled by the most southern Swahili city of Kilwa. From 1530, the Portuguese tried to establish trade markets (feiras) within Mutapa, but their interference in local affairs, particularly their attempts to spread Christianity, brought them into conflict with the Mutapa rulers. In a familiar tale of colonial interference, the kingdom descended into a period of civil wars. A small number of Portuguese landowners clung onto the garrisoned forts at Sena, Tete, and Zumbo in the Zambezi valley.
随着商人们的渐行渐远，葡萄牙人便开始了下一步的行动，那就是在源头上寻找货物。为此，1530年，他们对遥远的南部（现代津巴布韦北部和赞比亚南部）的穆塔帕王国产生了更大的兴趣。穆塔帕（约1450年建立）的讲班图语的绍纳人从其前身大津巴布韦（约1100-约1550年）继承了该地区的贸易网络。来自穆塔帕的货物，如黄金和象牙，与索法拉进行贸易，索法拉是由最南部的斯瓦希里城市基尔瓦控制的前哨。从1530年起，葡萄牙人试图在穆塔帕建立贸易市场（feiras），但他们对当地事务的干预，尤其是传播基督教的尝试，使他们与穆塔帕统治者发生了冲突。在殖民干涉的典型案例中，王国进入了内战时期。少数葡萄牙地主紧紧抓住赞比西河谷的Sena、Tete和Zumbo的驻军堡垒。
Further north, the Portuguese were still causing havoc along the Swahili coast, exploiting the rivalries between cities and capturing Mombasa in 1593. A huge fort, Fort Jesus, was then built at Mombasa, which acted as a regional headquarters for the Portuguese. In 1633, a new strategy was adopted in Mutapa and, with the help of Portuguese settlers who had married local women, the Portuguese took over the kingdom completely. Unfortunately, Mutapa was nowhere near as rich in gold as had been hoped for; this was no Inca or Aztec civilization that their great rival Spain was plundering in the Americas.
The decline in East African trade, the disappointment in the non-existent riches of Mutapa, and the fatal problem of tropical diseases resulted in the Portuguese Crown abandoning its ambitions on the Swahili Coast, and instead, they focused on Mozambique Island located between the Swahili Coast in the north and Mutapa in the south. Batua, another Shona kingdom, took over what was left of Mutapa in 1693.
再往北，葡萄牙人仍在斯瓦希里海岸肆虐，利用城市间的竞争并于 1593 年征服了蒙巴萨，在那里建造了一座巨大的堡垒耶稣堡，作为葡萄牙人在该地区的总部。1633年，在穆塔帕采取了新的策略，在与当地妇女结婚的葡萄牙定居者的帮助下，葡萄牙人完全接管了这个王国。不幸的是，穆塔帕的黄金资源远没有想象中的那么丰富；这不是葡萄牙人的强力对手西班牙在美洲掠夺的印加或阿兹特克文明所能媲美的。
东非贸易的衰落，对穆塔帕不存在的财富的失望，以及热带疾病的致命问题，导致葡萄牙王室放弃了对斯瓦希里海岸的野心，转而将注意力放在位于北部斯瓦希里海岸和南部穆塔帕之间的莫桑比克岛。1693年，另一个绍纳王国巴图阿（Batua）接管了穆塔帕的剩余部分。
葡属东非 (África Oriental Portuguesa)
The area of what is today Mozambique was first inhabited by Bantu-speaking people who had arrived in the area as part of the Bantu migration from the 1st to 4th century. The famed Chinese mariner-explorer Admiral Zheng He (aka Cheng Ho, c. 1371-1433) visited Mozambique in the first quarter of the 15th century. Arab traders had settled in the area by the end of that century. Vasco da Gama had stopped to resupply his ships there in 1498, and the Portuguese had no doubt made a record of the coasts’ potential for colonization. The first Portuguese settlers arrived on Mozambique Island from 1506, and a captaincy was created where land was parcelled out for development. The Crown controlled all trade to and from Mozambique, making it an extremely profitable colony. By the mid-16th century, however, it was discovered that Mozambique was not as gold-rich as hoped. There was some trade to be done at a local level, and ivory was a potential earner but proved too difficult to obtain and too bulky a commodity to make huge profits from.
现今的莫桑比克地区最初居住着讲班图语的人，他们在1至4世纪作为班图人移民的一部分到达该地区。中国著名航海家、探险家郑和（约1371-1433年）在15世纪上半叶访问了莫桑比克。在该世纪末，阿拉伯商人已在该地区定居。1498年，瓦斯科·达·伽马（Vasco da Gama）曾在此停船补给，葡萄牙人无疑意识到了该海岸的殖民潜力。第一批葡萄牙定居者于1506年抵达莫桑比克岛，并设立了一个船长区，将土地分割出来用于开发。葡萄牙王室控制了进出莫桑比克的所有贸易，使其成为一个利润极高的殖民地。然而，到了16世纪中期，人们发现莫桑比克的黄金并不像预期的那么丰富。在当地有一些贸易可以做，象牙是一个潜在的收入来源，但事实证明，获得象牙太难了，而且象牙太笨重了，无法从中获得巨大的利润。
Mozambique became a part of the Estado da India from 1571. Carrack trade ships plied the Indian Ocean regularly between Mozambique and Goa as part of the route known as the carreira da India. As in other Portuguese colonies, many European immigrants were undesirables (degredados), shipped by the authorities to free Portugal of them. These reluctant travellers included convicts, beggars, reformed prostitutes, orphans, and religious dissidents. The coastal towns soon developed European architecture, especially villas, churches, and paved thoroughfares. Meanwhile, many Portuguese moved inland and integrated with local tribes, intermarrying and often adopting the lifestyle and even the appearance of Mozambique Africans. A system developed known as prazo, where African chiefs gave land and trade and tribute rights to Portuguese and Afro-Portuguese, an appointment then formally recognised by the Portuguese Crown. In return, the appointee (a muzungo) had to ensure justice was carried out in his territory, supervise traditional rituals, and approve chiefs of smaller villages in their jurisdiction. To maintain their position, muzungos had a private army of retainers (chicunda) which could number several thousand Africans. By 1637, there were at least 80 prazos, and most acted independently of the weak Portuguese administration at the capital Maputo.
莫桑比克从1571年起成为葡属印度的一部分。帆船贸易船定期在莫桑比克和果阿之间的印度洋上航行，作为被称为carreira da India路线的一部分。与其他葡萄牙殖民地一样，许多欧洲移民是不受欢迎的人（degredados），由当局运送到殖民地，以使葡萄牙摆脱他们。这些非自愿的旅行者包括罪犯、乞丐、改过自新的妓女、孤儿和宗教异见者。沿海城镇很快出现了欧洲建筑，特别是别墅、教堂和铺砌的道路。同时，许多葡萄牙人移居内陆，与当地部落融合、通婚，并经常采用莫桑比克非洲人的生活方式，甚至是外观。一个被称为prazo（或prazo da coroa）的系统发展起来，非洲酋长将土地和贸易及进贡权交给葡萄牙人和非洲裔葡萄牙人，这种任命当时得到了葡萄牙王室的正式承认。作为回报，被任命者（muzungo）必须确保司法在其领土上得到执行，监督传统仪式，并批准其管辖范围内的小村庄的酋长。为了维护自己的地位，被任命者（muzungo）拥有一支由家丁（chicunda）组成的私人军队，人数可达数千人。到1637年，至少存在有80个prazo，大多数prazo独立于位于首都马普托的葡萄牙政府。
The Dutch attacked many Portuguese colonies in the early 17th century, and Mozambique did not escape. The Dutch East India Company launched raids in 1607 and 1608. The Portuguese did entertain hopes of crossing the African interior and creating a geographical link with Portuguese Angola on the other side of Africa, but the advance of the British from southern Africa northwards ended this dream. Tellingly, both the British and Dutch had superior ships to those of the Portuguese, but there was also a threat from the Omani Arabs of the Persian Gulf who were keen to keep hold of their Red Sea trade routes. The Omani moved in on the Swahili coast and captured Portuguese Mombasa in 1698. The Portuguese briefly recaptured it in the 1720s, but put simply, the Portuguese Empire, a string of trading ports that spanned the globe, was too large to maintain without any significant land occupation to provide local troops to defend it. Following more victories by the Omani, the Portuguese were left with only Mozambique to show for all their efforts on the east coast of Africa.
荷兰人在17世纪初袭击了许多葡萄牙殖民地，莫桑比克也没能逃脱。荷兰东印度公司在1607年和1608年对莫桑比克发动了进攻。葡萄牙人希望进入非洲内陆，与葡萄牙安哥拉建立地理联系，于大陆的另一边，但英国从南非向北推进结束了这个梦想。英国人和荷兰人都比葡萄牙人拥有明显的海军优势，但也存在来自波斯湾的阿曼阿拉伯人的威胁，他们渴望保持对红海贸易路线的控制。阿曼人到达斯瓦希里海岸并于 1698 年征服了蒙巴萨。葡萄牙人在18世纪20年代曾短暂地夺回了蒙巴萨，但简单地说，葡萄牙帝国有着一连串的贸易港口散布在全球各地，如果没有任何重要的土地占领以提供当地军队来保卫它，就无法维持。在阿曼人取得更多的胜利后，葡萄牙人在非洲东海岸的所有努力只剩下了莫桑比克。
From 1752, Mozambique became a separate administration from the Estado da India and Goa. The colony’s governor was now responsible to Lisbon directly. The slave trade grew from Mozambique in the mid-18th century as demand boomed for slaves to work on the French sugar plantations on Reunion and Mauritius. In the 19th century, there was more settlement of the interior and much exploration by scientists as Mozambique became a full territorial colony and not merely a strip of coastal strongholds and disconnected interior estates.
从1752年起，莫桑比克成为独立于葡属印度管理机构的地区。该殖民地的总督直接向里斯本负责。18世纪中叶，随着法国殖民地留尼旺岛和毛里求斯的甘蔗种植园对工人的需求增加，来自莫桑比克的奴隶贸易有所增长。在 19 世纪，随着莫桑比克成为一个成熟的殖民领土，而不仅仅是沿海防御工事和孤立的腹地，内陆有了更多的定居点，也有更多的科学探索。
While some private traders prospered, the Portuguese Crown did not gain very much from Mozambique in the end. Indigenous resistance and a marked preference by Portuguese migrants for a colony like Portuguese Brazil meant that the Portuguese Crown abandoned attempts at direct control and instead gave out swathes of the region to private companies to develop from 1891. One such company was the Niassa Company which ruthlessly confiscated agricultural surpluses from the indigenous farmers. Another was the Mozambique Company that grabbed slaves for use on colonial sugar plantations. In the late 19th century, the colony officially became Portuguese East Africa.
尽管一些私人商人生意兴隆，但葡萄牙王室最终并没有从莫桑比克得到多少。本土抵抗和葡萄牙移民对巴西这样的殖民地的明显偏爱导致葡萄牙王室放弃了获得直接控制权的企图，将大片领土割让给私营公司进行开发。其中一家公司是尼亚萨特许公司，该公司无情地没收了当地农民的农业盈余。另一家是莫桑比克公司，该公司为甘蔗种植园诱捕奴隶。19世纪末，该殖民地正式成为葡属东非。
Not surprisingly, the lack of a centralised authority gave hope to the people of Mozambique that they might fight for their freedom. A major uprising broke out in 1917, the Barwe rebellion, and a German force invaded northern Mozambique in the same year. The Portuguese clung on, and Mozambique was made an overseas province of Portugal in 1951. A new independence movement began in 1962, and autonomy from colonial rule was finally achieved in 1975 after a long period of repressive government policies and guerrilla warfare. A civil war then ravaged the country until 1992.
毫不奇怪，在没有中央集权的情况下，莫桑比克人民希望通过斗争赢得自由。1917 年爆发了一场大起义，即 Barue 起义；同年，一支德国部队入侵了莫桑比克北部。葡萄牙人保留了他们的殖民地，莫桑比克在1951年成为葡萄牙的一个海外省。一场新的运动始于 1962 年，经过长期的镇压政策和游击战，最终于 1975 年实现独立。随后，一场内战蹂躏了这个国家，直到1992年。
参考书目：
Disney, A. R. A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Disney, A. R. A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Ogot, B. A. UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. V, Abridged Edition. University of California Press, 1999.
Oliver, R. A. Cambridge Encyclopedia of Africa. Cambridge University Press, 1981.
Oliver, Roland. The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Philip Curtin & Steven Feierman & Leonard Thompson & Jan Vansina. African History. Pearson, 1995.
Russell-Wood, A. J.R. The Portuguese Empire, 1415-1808. JHUP, 1998.
原文作者：Mark Cartwright
驻意大利的历史作家。他的主要兴趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神话和发现所有文明的共同思想。他拥有政治哲学硕士学位，是《世界历史百科全书》的出版总监。
参考书目：https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/es/2-1798/los-portugueses-en-africa-oriental/
