中世纪世界生活手册（一）
当今的人们一直向往着中世纪世界，而中世纪世界也继续为流行文化提供素材。人们渴望体验或目睹一场中世纪的宴会、阿拔斯王朝哈里发哈伦·拉希德（Harun al-Rashid，786-809年）的奢华宫廷、多米尼加审讯官的酷刑工具、英勇的基督教与穆斯林骑士之间的十字军战斗，或普罗旺斯游吟诗人的表演，从无数致力于将这些和其他中世纪世界的主题或事件带入生活的网站、小说、电影和俱乐部来看，人们一直保持着高度兴趣。《中世纪世界生活手册》从继承和居住在古典罗马帝国的基督徒、犹太人和穆斯林的角度来看待中世纪时期，罗马帝国的范围从不列颠群岛延伸到欧洲大陆、地中海、北非、中东、小亚细亚以及其他地区。
The medieval world holds enduring fascination for people today and continues to provide material for popular culture. The desire to experience or witness a medieval banquet, the sumptuous court of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809), the instruments of torture of a Dominican inquisitor, a crusader battle between valiant Christian and Muslim knights, or a performance by a Provençal troubadour is seemingly insatiable, judging from the infinite number of Web sites, novels, films, and clubs dedicated to bringing these and other themes or events of the medieval world to life. Handbook to Life in the Medieval World looks at the medieval period from the perspective of Christians, Jews, and Muslims who inherited and inhabited the classical Roman Empire, which stretched from the British Isles through continental Europe, the Mediterranean, North Africa, the Middle East, to Asia Minor, and beyond.
界定中世纪世界
把中世纪的基督徒、穆斯林和犹太人的历史、文化、经济和社会放在一起分析，可以让我们清楚地看到他们紧密地交织在一起的关系，甚至在激烈的冲突与敌对的时候也是如此。然而，“中世纪世界”的概念也有些问题，因为这个历史范畴并不统一适用于犹太人、基督徒和穆斯林。为方便起见，本书沿用了欧洲中世纪世界开始于476年罗马陷落的传统时间。这个断裂点标志着重新定义为罗马基督教和拉丁语的古典文化在北欧和西欧出现和扩张的历史。虽然西罗马帝国在476年灭亡，但东罗马帝国却完好无损地生存了下来，在一个世纪前，随着324年“新罗马”在君士坦丁堡的建立，它几乎将西方抛弃给哥特部落。由于这个原因，一些学者将中世纪拜占庭的开始时间定在这一年，而另一些学者则将其定在更早的戴克里先（284-305年）统治时期，他将帝国分为“东方”和“西方”两省。还有一些人将狄奥多西一世（379-395年）时期的帝国正式基督教化视为过渡点。无论选择什么日期，中世纪世界的一个主要主题是拜占庭帝国与西罗马帝国和教皇之间对古典罗马遗产的争夺。
Treating together the history, culture, economy, and societies of Christians, Muslims, and Jews during the Middle Ages allows us to see clearly how closely intertwined their lives were, even, if not especially, at times of intense conflict and enmity. At the same time, however, the concept of the “medieval world” is somewhat problematic because the historical category does not apply uniformly to Jews, Christians, and Muslims. For the sake of convenience this book follows the traditional dating of the beginning of the European medieval world from the Fall of Rome in 476. This breaking point marks the history of the emergence and expansion of classical culture redefined as Roman Christian and Latin across northern and western Europe. Although the Western Roman Empire fell in 476, the Eastern Roman Empire survived intact, having all but abandoned the West to the Gothic tribes a century earlier with the founding of the “New Rome” at Constantinople in 324. For this reason some scholars date the beginning of medieval Byzantium from this year, while others situate it even earlier, during the reign of Diocletian (r. 284–305), who divided the empire into the “Oriental” and “Occidental” provinces. Still others see the official Christianization of the empire under Theodosius I (r. 379–395) as the transition point. Whatever the date of choice, a major theme of the medieval world is the contested claims over the legacy of classical Rome between the Byzantine Empire and the Western Roman Empire and the papacy.
从犹太人的角度来看，“中世纪”时代看起来相当与众不同。犹太文明有自己的日历，并记录了改变其历史进程的事件，其中巴比伦囚禁（公元前597-537年）和犹太教的毁灭以及犹太人被驱逐到散居地（公元前70年）是两个转折点。就我们的目的而言，犹太人的中世纪世界可以追溯到Gaonic时期（见第133页），其特点是拉比犹太教的巩固和第四至第六世纪geonim（犹太精神领袖）对巴勒斯坦和巴比伦塔木德地区文献的编纂，这两个时期与罗马帝国的基督教化有较大关系，而不是与罗马的政治命运衰退有关。伊斯兰教的诞生和伊斯兰文明的崛起是第七世纪的关键事件。随着它们的出现，地中海的文化统一性从古典的罗马、拉丁和基督教转变为闪米特、阿拉伯语和伊斯兰教。然而，正如在接下来的篇幅中所明确的那样，穆斯林将对基督教西方的古典文化的恢复产生影响。
From the Jewish perspective, the “medieval” era looks quite distinct. Jewish civilization has its own calendar identifying the events that changed the course of its history, in which the Babylonian Captivity (597–537 B.C.E.) and the destruction of Judaea and expulsion of the Jews into the Diaspora (70 C.E.) were two turning points. For our purpose, the Jewish medieval world dates from the Gaonic Period (see p. 133) characterized by the consolidation of rabbinic Judaism and the compilation of the Palestinian and Babylonian Talmud by the geonim (Jewish spiritual leaders) of the fourth to sixth centuries, both of which have more to do with the Christianization of the Roman Empire than with the declining political fortunes of Rome. The birth of Islam and the rise of Islamic civilization are the key events of the seventh century. With them, the cultural unity of the Mediterranean was transformed from classical Roman, Latin, and Christian into Semitic, Arabic-speaking, and Islamic. And yet, as will become clear in the pages that follow, the Muslims would be responsible for the recovery of classical culture in the Christian West.
中世纪时期何时结束？同样，历史学家们选择了许多日期。曾经有一段时间，学者们把欧洲的“中世纪”称为“黑暗时代”，以表示位于古典罗马和15世纪欧洲文艺复兴之间的无知和迷信的暂时性落后时代。伊斯兰世界的学者们通常将奥斯曼人在勒班陀战役（1571年）中的失败视为近1000年的穆斯林政治、文化和经济霸权统治的最终终结。作为妥协，我们选择1492年作为结束本卷的历史节点。1492年是一个结束和开始的年份，它标志着一系列政治秩序变革的最后时刻，这些变革始于1453年奥斯曼帝国对君士坦丁堡的征服，并在穆斯林-格拉纳达落入西班牙天主教君主之手时达到顶点。从这一刻起，“西方”成为彻底的基督教区，“东方”成为穆斯林教区。
When does the medieval period end? Again, many dates could be chosen. There was a time when scholars referred to the European “Middle Ages” as the “Dark Ages” to signify a temporal backwater of ignorance and superstition situated between classical Rome and its revival in the 15th-century European Renaissance. Scholars of the Islamic world often look to the defeat of the Ottomans at the Battle of Lepanto (1571) as the definitive end of a nearly 1,000- year reign of Muslim political, cultural, and economic hegemony. As a compromise, we have chosen the year 1492 as a convenient historical point to end this volume. Fourteen hundred and ninety-two is a year of endings and beginnings. It marks the final point of a series of transformations of the political order that were initiated with the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 and culminated in the fall of Muslim Granada to the Catholic monarchs of Spain. From this moment onward, “the West” becomes thoroughly Christian and “the East” Muslim.
格拉纳达的陷落伴随着将犹太人驱逐出西班牙的法令，鲜为人知的是15世纪90年代，整个十年间发生的从德国驱逐犹太人的事件。1492年体现了世界犹太人的三个全球性转变：（1）来自西班牙的塞法迪犹太人以及法国和德国的阿什肯纳兹犹太人汇聚到意大利，在那里，他们与现存的罗马犹太人一起形成了意大利犹太人的新文化圈；（2）塞法迪犹太人步入奥斯曼帝国的轨道；（3）阿什肯纳兹犹太人的中心从德国莱茵地区向东远移至波兰、立陶宛和俄罗斯。
The fall of Granada was accompanied by the edict of expulsion of the Jews from Spain. Less well known are the expulsions of Jews from Germany that took place throughout the decade of the 1490s. The year 1492 exemplifies three global shifts of world Jewry: (1) Sephardic Jews from Spain and French and German Ashkenazic Jews converge upon Italy, where, together with the extant Roman Jews, they form a new culture of Italian Jewry; (2) Sephardic Jewry enters into the orbit of the Ottoman Empire; and (3) the displacement of the center of Ashkenazic Jewry from the German Rhineland farther east into Poland, Lithuania, and Russia occurs.
中世纪历史研究
回溯中世纪基督徒、穆斯林和犹太人的生活，需要翻阅大量的书面记录——主要是历史、文学、宗教和法律文件，以及艺术、建筑、钱币及其他物质文化的遗迹。不同的文明都有自己保存文化的方式。西欧拥有大量记录其政治、社会、文化、经济和宗教历史的书面记录，这些记录似乎是无穷无尽的：皇家和修道院编年史、教皇诏书和法令、教会会议记录、个人遗嘱、皇家宪章、教区记录、布道书、个人信件、商业记录、（自传）传记、圣徒传记（对圣徒生活的描述）和指导手册等等。拜占庭历史学延续了自希罗多德以来希腊历史写作的悠久、不间断的传统，以及大量的财政和税收记录、军事手册、司法法典和法令、圣人的生活、宗主国记录、教会会议、修道院档案、布道书和宗教论文等等。
Retracing the lives of medieval Christians, Muslims, and Jews requires plowing through a vast array of written records—mainly historical, literary, religious, and legal documents—as well as art, architecture, coins, and other vestiges of material culture. Different civilizations have their own ways of preserving their cultures. Western Europe is blessed with a seemingly infinite number of written records documenting its political, social, cultural, economic, and religious history: royal and monastic chronicles, papal bulls and edicts, church synod records, personal wills, royal charters, parish records, sermons, personal letters, mercantile records, (auto)biographies, hagiographies (accounts of saints’ lives), and instruction manuals, among others. Byzantine historiography continues a long, unbroken tradition of Greek historical writing going back to Herodotus, as well as voluminous fiscal and taxation records, military manuals, juridical codes and edicts, saints’ lives, patriarchal records, church synods, monastic archives, sermons and religious treatises, and more.
犹太教、穆斯林和基督教的资料有一些重叠，但也有许多不同的地方。中世纪犹太教的编年史传统不像中世纪伊斯兰和基督教文化那样强大。幸运的是，这三者都有记录十字军东征的编年史。犹太人在散居地的宗教、经济、文化和社会历史可以从大量的信件、伦理遗嘱、旅行日记、司法判决书、宗教会议条例（takkanot）和其他保存在开罗Geniza（仓库）的文件中拼凑起来。犹太历史学受到其流动性的影响——由于频繁的驱逐，个人和整个社区不断迁移，以及犹太社区及其记录在欧洲的消失。皇家财政记录和批地章程以及教皇、教区和教会会议记录填补了这一空白，让人们了解到生活在基督教国家的犹太人的生活与地位。礼仪诗歌和宗教论战论文作为证明犹太教与基督教关系以及犹太人对基督教反犹太主义的反应的历史文件至关重要。
There is some overlapping among Jewish, Muslim, and Christian sources, although there are many areas of divergence as well. The chronicle tradition is not as strong in medieval Judaism as it was in medieval Islamic and Christian cultures. We are fortunate, however, to have chronicles from all three communities documenting the Crusades. The religious, economic, cultural, and social history of Sephardic and Ashkenazic Jews across the Diaspora may be pieced together from the wealth of letters, ethical wills, travel diaries, juridical responsa, synod ordinances (takkanot), and other documents preserved in the Cairo Geniza (storehouse). Jewish historiography is hampered by itineracy—the constant movement of persons and whole communities due to frequent expulsions, and the disappearance of Jewish communities and their records from Europe. Royal fiscal records and charters of land grants and papal, parish, and church synod records fill this vacuum by providing insight into the lives and status of Jews living in Christendom. Liturgical poetry and religious polemical treatises are vital as historical documents testifying to Jewish-Christian relations and the Jewish response to Christian anti-Semitism.
伊斯兰教崛起的历史学是有问题的，因为没有可以追溯到其创始人穆罕默德生前的阿拉伯资料。然而，有大量的非穆斯林描述，主要是源于拜占庭的描述。《古兰经》也提供了关于穆罕默德生活和伊斯兰教产生的环境线索。阿拉伯文化是一种口头文化，诗人、吟游诗人和演说家通过诗歌和演讲口头传播他们的英雄和伟大事件的历史。这种口头遗产在8世纪阿拔斯王朝初期开始被记录下来。与犹太教一样，伊斯兰教的诗歌不应仅仅被视为文学娱乐，而应被视为从诗人及其赞助人的角度对事件的严肃历史记录。在阿拔斯时期，穆罕默德的生活被记录下来，这一事件产生了丰富的历史、纪事、传记、自传和传记写作传统。蓬勃发展的阿拔斯王朝的官僚机构产生了对高职人员记录、指导手册和官方书信的需求。
The historiography of the rise of Islam is problematic because there are no Arab sources dating from the lifetime of its founder, Muhammad. There are, however, an abundance of non-Muslim accounts, primarily Byzantine in origin. The Quran also gives clues to the life of Muhammad and the milieu in which Islam emerged. Arabian culture was an oral culture. Poets, bards, and orators transmitted the history of their heroes and great events orally in poetry and speeches. This oral heritage began to be written down in the eighth century in the early days of the Abbasid period. As in Judaism, poetry in Islam must be regarded not just as literary entertainment but as a serious historical record of events as seen from the perspective of the poet and his or her patron. During the Abbasid period the life of Muhammad was written down, and this event gave rise to a rich tradition of historical, chronicle, biographical, autobiographical, and hagiographic writing. The burgeoning Abbasid bureaucracy created the need for chancellery records, instruction manuals, and official epistles.
传记词典是一种独特的阿拉伯-伊斯兰体裁，包含了关于杰出人物的信息和轶事，其中绝大多数是统治者和贵族以及宗教机构（乌里玛）。社会历史可以从土地赠与的记录、虔诚的捐赠和法学答辩中收集到。回应文献、编年史和诗歌是我们关于西班牙穆斯林的最重要的资料来源，尽管这些文件得到了基督教编年史的补充。在西班牙和西西里岛生活在基督教统治下的穆斯林的情况与犹太人的情况类似；皇家和教会记录填补了伊斯兰教资料的空白。
The biographical dictionary is a uniquely AraboIslamic genre, containing a gold mine of information and anecdotes about prominent persons, overwhelmingly rulers and aristocrats and the religious establishment (ulema). Social history may be gleaned from records of land grants, pious endowments, and juridical responsa. Responsa, chronicles, and poetry are our most important sources for the Muslims of Spain, although these documents are complemented by the Christian chronicles. The situation of Muslims living under Christian rule (Mudejars) in Spain and Sicily is similar to that of the Jews; royal and ecclesiastical records must fill in the gaps of the scant Islamic sources.
新文化的出现
中世纪世界是一个多民族的大杂烩，各民族都在流动，迁移到有或没有固定边界的地区。盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和诺曼人移居英格兰；哥特人移居西班牙、法国、意大利和北非；北欧维京人移居不列颠群岛、法国、德国和低地国家；斯拉夫人移居拜占庭；中亚突厥人部落移居中东和东欧，形成了新的文化和政治实体，并改变了旧罗马帝国的文化。诺曼人对英格兰的征服给这个国家的政治和文化形成打上了不可磨灭的烙印。阿拉伯-伊斯兰教的征服使罗马帝国从中东到西班牙都阿拉伯化和伊斯兰化。
The medieval world was a multiethnic jigsaw of peoples on the move, migrating into territories with or without fixed borders. The Angle, Saxon, and Norman migrations to England; the Goth to Spain, France, Italy, and North Africa; the Nordic Viking to the British Isles, France, Germany, and the Low Countries; the Slav to Byzantium; and the Central Asian Turkic tribes to the Middle East and eastern Europe forged new cultures and political entities and changed those of the old Roman Empire. The Norman conquest of England indelibly marked the political and cultural formation of that country. The Arabo-Islamic conquests Arabized and Islamicized the Roman Empire from the Middle East to Spain.
因此，中世纪也讲述了各种文化有意识地相互塑造自己身份的故事。加洛林王朝的征服和加洛林王朝的文艺复兴试图在西欧建立一个同质的罗马天主教和拉丁化文化，以区别于其竞争对手希腊东正教拜占庭帝国和伊斯兰哈里发。希拉克略（610-641）统治下的拜占庭也做出了回应，将希腊语作为帝国的官方语言，埋葬了其拉丁语遗产。拉丁人和拜占庭人对基督教的热情往往表现为对犹太少数民族的迫害，而十字军东征则在一场旷日持久的“圣战”中对抗基督教和伊斯兰教，这场战争的神话在伊斯兰教和西方的文化记忆中一直存在。拉比犹太教的巩固让独特的犹太身份得以生存，并在基督教和伊斯兰教的散居地有了很大程度的自治权。犹太人的仪式和虔诚被散居地的生活所改变，其礼仪诗歌、颂歌、节庆和对殉道的赞美见证了犹太人被迫害和被迫流亡的情景。
Hence, the Middle Ages also tell the story of cultures consciously shaping their own identities against one another. The Carolingian conquests and Carolingian Renaissance sought to create a homogeneous Roman Catholic, Latinized culture in western Europe in contradistinction to its rivals, the Greek Orthodox Byzantine Empire and the Islamic caliphate. The Byzantines under Heraclius (r. 610–641) reciprocated, making Greek the official language of the empire and burying its Latin heritage. More often than not, Latin and Byzantine zeal for Christianity expressed itself in the persecution of Jewish minorities, while the Crusades confronted Christianity and Islam in a protracted “holy war,” the myth of which persists in the cultural memory of Islam and the West. The consolidation of rabbinic Judaism allowed the survival of a uniquely Jewish identity and a large measure of Jewish autonomy in the diasporas of Christendom and Islam. Jewish ritual and piety were transformed by life in the Diaspora, its liturgical poetry, canticles, feasts, and exaltation of martyrdom bearing witness to persecution and exile.
虽然各民族的文化常常是在相互对立的情况下发展起来的，但出现的独特文化传统却相互交融，相互影响。在很大程度上，由于教皇格里高利大帝（590-604年）的不懈努力和加洛林王朝文艺复兴，西欧人民的墨洛温王朝和加洛林王朝的皈依赋予了不列颠群岛和欧洲大陆上不同民族以独特的文化遗产。在拜占庭东部，针对其斯拉夫入侵者，也发生了类似的过程。巴尔干和俄罗斯的异教徒皈依了东正教，并在1453年拜占庭帝国灭亡后长期延续拜占庭文明的遗产。随着上述伊斯兰统治下国家的阿拉伯化和伊斯兰化，我们必须强调塞法迪犹太人文化的阿拉伯化，特别是巴格达的智慧之家（Bayt al-Hikma）以及托莱多和西西里的翻译学校，前者代表了伊斯兰在希腊遗产生存中的作用，而后者则是将这种知识传给西欧的载体。阿拉伯和波斯文学影响了基督教文学，阿拉伯音乐传统启发了游吟诗人，同样，犹太人的世俗和宗教文学也因与伊斯兰教和基督教的接触而发生了变革。甚至战争也是文化交流的一个渠道，因为双方会互相借用对方的军事技术。
Although developed often in opposition to each other, the unique cultural traditions that emerged met and influenced each other. The Merovingian and Carolingian conversions of the peoples of western Europe—in large measure due to the tireless efforts of Pope Gregory the Great (r. 590–604) and the Carolingian Renaissance—endowed the disparate ethnic groups of the British Isles and continental Europe with a distinct cultural heritage. A similar process took place in the Byzantine East with respect to its Slavic invaders. Pagan Balkan and Russian Slavs converted to Orthodox Christianity and would continue the legacy of Byzantine civilization long after the demise of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. With the aforementioned Arabization and Islamization of the countries under Islamic rule one must highlight the Arabization of Sephardic Jewish culture and especially the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma) of Baghdad and the Schools of Translation in Toledo and Sicily, the former representing the Islamic role in the survival of the Greek heritage, and the latter the vehicle for the transmission of this knowledge to western Europe. Arabic and Persian literature influenced Christian literature, and the Arabic musical tradition inspired the troubadours in the same way that Jewish secular and religious literature was revolutionized by contacts with Islam and Christianity. Even war was a channel for cultural exchange, as bitter rivals borrowed military technology from each other.
我们邀请您进入中世纪的世界，欣赏在基督教徒、犹太人和穆斯林（以及异教徒）共存、互动和相互争斗的过程中所编织的丰富的文化锦绣。
We invite you to enter the medieval world and discover the rich cultural tapestry that evolved as Christians, Jews, and Muslims (and pagans) coexisted, interacted, and fought with one another.
《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）
By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones
