【简译】文艺复兴时期艺术家的工作室生活

2022-08-10 15:31 作者:神尾智代 0人读过 | 我要投稿

The majority of great Renaissance works of art were produced in large and busy workshops run by a successful master artist and his team of assistants and apprentices. Here, too, more mundane art was produced in larger quantities to meet the demand from clients with a more modest budget than possessed by rulers and popes. Workshops were also training grounds for young artists who learnt their craft over several years, beginning with copying sketches and perhaps ending with producing works in their own name. Although workshops often had a well-defined house 'style', they were also places where ideas were experimented with and where new trends could be studied, discussed, and employed in works of art that ranged from massive frescoes to votive figurines.

大多数伟大的文艺复兴时期的艺术作品都是在大型的、繁忙的作坊里产生的，这些作坊几乎都是由一位成功的艺术大师和他的助手及学徒团队管理。在这里，普通艺术作品也被大量生产，以满足不同客户的需求，他们的预算比统治者和教皇较少。工作室也是年轻艺术家的培训场所，他们在几年内学习前辈的手艺，从复制草图开始，也许最后以自己的名义制作作品。虽然工作室通常有明确的内部 "风格"，但它们也是试验各种想法的地方；在这里，艺术家们可以研究、讨论并在艺术作品中采用新颖的手法，其范围从大型壁画到选民小雕像。

巴乔·班迪内利创作的《佛罗伦萨学院》（The Florentine Academy）。

工作室的建立

The people who produce art and decorative objects, those we today call 'artists', were, during the Renaissance, called 'craftsmen' and so belonged to the same broad category as cobblers, bakers, carpenters, and blacksmiths. Like these artisans, artists had workshops with the specialised equipment, materials, and space they needed for their work. As the Renaissance progressed, it is true that artists began to be distinguished from other craftworkers as there was an obvious intellectual element to their work - they studied the past and considered such theories as mathematical perspective, for example. Hitherto, the title of 'artist' had only been given to someone who had studied the seven liberal arts (rhetoric, grammar, dialectic, geometry, arithmetic, music, and astronomy). This development and elevation of the artist from other craftworkers also indicated that art had become an essential and important element in how a city or state viewed itself.

生产艺术和装饰品的人，也就是我们今天所说的"艺术家"，在文艺复兴时期被称为"工匠"，因此与鞋匠、面包师、木匠和铁匠属于同一大类。和这些职业一样，艺术家们也有自己的工作室，拥有他们工作所需的专业设备、材料和空间。随着文艺复兴的发展，艺术家确实开始与其他手工业者区分开来，因为他们的工作有明显的智力因素——例如，他们研究过去，考虑数学透视等理论。到目前为止，"艺术家 "的头衔只赋予那些学习过七种文科（修辞学、语法、辩证法、几何学、算术、音乐和天文学）的人。艺术家从其他手工业者中发展和提升，也表明艺术已经成为一个城市或国家如何看待自己的基本和重要因素。

During the Renaissance many civic projects, but also some private ones like fresco cycles, could take many years to complete. Some projects needed large quantities of material and a team of artists, usually working under the supervision of the chief artist or his foreman, to complete them in good time. Consequently, when master artists were commissioned for specific projects, they were often given a dedicated space to create a workshop if they did not have one already or if it was more convenient to work on site. Donatello (c. 1386-1466 CE), for example, was commissioned to create sculptures for the exterior of Florence's cathedral and he was given space for his workshop in one of the Duomo's chapels. Running a workshop required all kinds of skills besides artistic ones. A master had to be discerning with contracts, manage and train staff, assess the quality of raw materials, budget his finances, invest any profits and, of course, never stop producing great art.

文艺复兴时期，许多市政工程，但也有一些私人工程，如壁画，可能需要很多年才能完成。有些项目需要大量的材料和一个完整的艺术家团队，通常在首席艺术家或其工头的监督下工作，以便及时完成这些项目。因此，当大师级的艺术家被委托进行特定的项目时，如果他们还没有工作室，或者在现场工作更方便的话，他们通常会得到一个专门的空间来创建一个工作室。例如，多纳太罗（约公元1386-1466年）被委托为佛罗伦萨大教堂的外墙创作雕塑，他的工作室被安排在大教堂的一个小礼拜堂里。除了艺术方面的技能，经营工作室还需要各种技能。大师必须对合同有清醒的认识，还要学会管理和培训员工，评估原材料的质量，预算财务，投资任何利润。当然，永远不要停止生产伟大的艺术品。

Some very successful artists even had workshops running in two or more cities at the same time. Just like today, a career in the arts could be a precarious one and some artists reduced the financial burden and risks by sharing a workshop. Donatello and Michelozzo di Bartolomeo (1396-1472 CE), for example, shared workshops in Pisa and Florence, which allowed them to save funds by sharing two boats and a mule for the transportation of marble needed for their work.

一些非常成功的艺术家甚至在两个或更多的城市同时开办工作室。就像今天一样，艺术家的艺术生涯可能是不稳定的，所以一些艺术家通过分享工作室来减少经济负担和风险。例如，多纳太罗和米切洛佐·迪·巴托洛梅奥（公元1396-1472年）在比萨和佛罗伦萨共享工作室，这使得他们可以通过共享两艘船和一头骡子来运输工作所需的大理石，以此节省资金。

客户

During the Renaissance, generally speaking, art was not produced first and then sold later as it often is today, rather, artists were commissioned to produce specific pieces. Works of art were expensive and so the customers of a workshop were typically rulers, aristocrats (men and women), bankers, successful merchants, notaries, higher members of the clergy, religious orders and civic authorities and organisations like guilds. More humble clients might commission works for very special occasions such as a marriage or moving into a new home. Another popular demand for artworks was ex-votos, that is objects like plaques and small reliefs which believers wanted to leave in their local church as a thanks for propitious events which had happened in their daily lives. These ex-votos were part of the minority of works that a workshop produced without first having identified a specific buyer and so they would have likely been available 'over the counter' for a client to choose from.

在文艺复兴时期，一般来说，艺术品不是像今天这样先生产后销售，而是客户委托艺术家制作特定的作品。艺术品价格昂贵，因此工作室的客户通常是统治者、贵族（男性和女性）、银行家、成功的商人、公证人、高级神职人员、宗教团体和公民当局以及行会等组织。更谦逊的客户可能会在非常特殊的场合，如结婚或搬入新家时委托制作。对艺术品的另一个流行需求是像牌匾和小浮雕这样的物品，信徒们想把它们留在当地的教堂里，作为对他们日常生活中发生的吉祥事件的感谢。这些纪念品是工作室在没有确定具体买家的情况下生产的少数作品的一部分，因此它们很可能是 "柜台"上的商品，供客户选择。

Whoever the client, though, they were generally picky, and the artist's job was to produce exactly what they wanted. This was not mere whim on the part of the patrons as in that period art was not simply meant to be aesthetically pleasing. Rather, works of art had specific functions such as inspiring devotion, telling a Biblical story, or representing the history and abilities of a certain city or ruling family. For this reason, the artist had to follow certain conventions so that viewers could easily recognise religious, mythological, and historical figures.

不过，无论客户是谁，他们一般都很挑剔，而艺术家的工作就是制作出他们想要的东西。这不仅仅是赞助人的心血来潮，因为在那个时期，艺术并不只是为了让人感到愉悦。相反，艺术作品有特定的功能，如激励人们的奉献精神，讲述圣经故事，或代表某个城市或统治家族的历史和能力。出于这个原因，艺术家必须遵循某些惯例，以便观众能够轻松识别宗教、神话和历史人物。

Patrons and customers were, then, often not shy to stipulate exactly what they wanted to see in the finished work. Artists who diverged from these stipulations risked not having their work accepted or replaced (in the case of a fresco, for example). Haggling over the design and artist's fees set many a project back, whether it be a tomb for a Pope or a statue of a military leader. Contracts often stipulated a precise completion date, and this could be another source of friction between patron and artist. The contract might include a clause on just how much precious material - anything from gold to expensive colours - was used in the commission. A finished work might have to pass an assessment by a body of independent artists in the case of public works to ensure high quality. However, some artists were famous enough to push for complete control of a given project, even if there was sometimes an outcry from traditionalists when the work was finally revealed to the public. Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel frescoes are a good example of this when some clergy objected to the amount of nudity in his work. The fact that the destruction of the frescoes was seriously contemplated indicates just how dangerous it was for an artist to vary from convention, even one as renowned as Michelangelo.

因此，赞助人和顾客往往毫不吝啬地给他们预定的作品提出更多的要求。偏离这些要求的艺术家有可能无法接受他们的作品或被替换（例如壁画）。在设计和艺术家费用上的讨价还价会使许多项目受到影响，无论是教皇的坟墓还是军事领导人的雕像。合同通常规定一个精确的完成日期，这可能是赞助人和艺术家之间摩擦的另一个来源。合同中可能包括一个条款，说明委托中使用了多少珍贵的材料——从黄金到昂贵的颜色。如果是公共工程，完成的作品可能必须通过独立艺术家机构的评估，以确保高质量。然而，一些艺术家的名气大到足以推动对某一项目的完全控制，即使有时当作品最终向公众展示时，也会遭到传统主义者的强烈抗议。米开朗基罗的西斯廷教堂壁画就是一个很好的例子，当时一些神职人员反对他作品中的裸体数量。认真考虑销毁壁画的事实表明，对于一个艺术家来说，即使是像米开朗基罗这样著名的艺术家，改变传统也是很危险的。

There was a great rivalry between such Italian cities as Florence, Venice, Mantua, and Siena and so it was not uncommon for rulers and civic authorities to try and poach an artist away from one city and establish a new workshop elsewhere. Such authorities hoped the new art produced would enhance the prestige of their city and themselves. In addition, some artists were in such demand that they accepted more commissions than they could handle and so works were left unfinished or had to be completed by an assistant. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519 CE) was notorious for not finishing off projects, and art patrons even wrote to each other warning of this fault.

佛罗伦萨、威尼斯、曼图亚和锡耶纳等意大利城市之间存在着巨大的竞争，因此统治者和市政当局试图将艺术家从一个城市挖走并在其他地方建立新的工作室的情况并不少见。这些当局希望产生的新艺术能提高他们城市和他们自己的声望。此外，有些艺术家的客户需求量太大，以至于他们接受的委托超过了他们能够处理的范围，因此作品有时可能会搁置，或者不得不由助手来完成。达芬奇（公元1452-1519年）因没有完成项目而臭名昭著，艺术赞助人甚至相互写信警告这种错误。

学徒

Workshops were not just places where art was produced but were training schools for the next generation of artists. Apprentices typically, but not always, followed their fathers into the artistic profession, as was common in other crafts. Other boys who showed artistic talent were sent to the workshop of a famous artist. Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455 CE), the famed sculptor who worked for decades on the doors of the Baptistery of Florence, had a large workshop in that city. Many artists studied under Ghiberti or worked as his assistant, notably the sculptor Donatello and the painter Paolo Uccello (1397-1475 CE). In another example, the Florentine artist Andrea del Verrocchio (c. 1435-1488 CE) trained Pietro Perugino (c. 1450-1523 CE), Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510 CE) and Leonardo da Vinci. Perugino would himself go on to train Raphael (1483-1520 CE) in his workshop in Perugia. The Renaissance art world was really quite a small one and famed artists were certainly aware of what their rivals were producing, either in the next room of the workshop or in another city.

工作室不仅是生产艺术品的地方，也是下一代艺术家的培训学校。学徒通常（但并不总是）跟随他们的父亲进入艺术行业，这在其他行业是很常见的。其他表现出艺术天赋的男孩则被送到著名艺术家的工作室。洛伦佐·吉贝尔蒂（公元1378-1455年）是著名的雕塑家，他为佛罗伦萨洗礼堂的大门装饰工作了几十年，他在该城市有一个大型工作室。许多艺术家都曾在吉贝尔蒂手下学习或担任他的助手，特别是雕塑家多纳太罗和画家保罗·乌切洛（公元1397-1475年）。另一个例子是，佛罗伦萨艺术家安德烈·德尔·委罗基奥（约1435-1488 CE）培养了彼得罗·佩鲁吉诺（约1450-1523 CE）、山德罗·波提且利（1445-1510 CE）和李奥纳多·迪·塞尔·皮耶罗·达文西。佩鲁吉诺本人也在他位于佩鲁贾的工作室里培养了拉斐尔（公元1483-1520年）。文艺复兴时期的艺术世界其实很小，著名的艺术家们当然知道他们的对手在生产什么，要么在工作室的隔壁房间，要么在另一个城市。

Apprentices were almost all boys (occasionally an artist apprenticed his own daughter), and they might be taken on as young as aged eleven or in their early teens. The training typically lasted from three to five years but could be less or more, depending on the ability and progress of the apprentice. The trainee was given food, lodging, and clothing, and sometimes a small wage. They would begin by doing the simple labour tasks necessary for the daily running of the workshop, then progress to making brushes from boar's hair, preparing glues and grinding pigments in marble basins. Next came such chores as mixing gesso, creating plaster, and preparing canvases.

学徒几乎都是男孩（偶尔有艺术家让自己的女儿当学徒），他们可能在11岁或10岁出头时就被招收。培训通常持续三到五年，但也可能更短或更长，这取决于学徒的能力和进步。受训者会得到衣食住的保障，有时还有少量工资。他们首先从事工作室日常运作所需的简单劳动，然后发展到用野猪毛制作画笔，准备胶水和在大理石盆中研磨颜料。接下来是搅拌石膏、制作石膏和准备画布等杂务。

The actual art skills typically began with drawing (using charcoal or ink), which was given great emphasis in the Renaissance period. Trainees endlessly copied drawings done by others and then progressed to creating new ones from three-dimensional casts. The final stage was to draw from live models, often fellow apprentices dressed as shepherds and angels or in the nude or wearing clothing that permitted an artist to perfect their representation of folded drapery. Another source of reality was drawing dead bodies and dissected limbs, which were acquired from local doctors and considered a useful way for painters and sculptors to better understand human musculature so that they could then better represent it accurately in art. Trips out and about in the city were organised to draw buildings, trees, and birds. As Leonardo da Vinci once recommended, any self-respecting artist should always carry a sketchbook with him to be ready to capture a new and interesting subject.

艺术技能的训练通常从绘画开始（使用木炭或墨水），这在文艺复兴时期被高度重视。学员们无休止地临摹别人画的画，然后发展到根据三维模型创作新的画。最后一个阶段是根据活体模特儿作画，这些模特儿往往是装扮成牧羊人和天使的学徒，或者是裸体，或者是穿着允许艺术家完美表现折叠窗帘的服装。现实的另一个来源是绘制尸体和解剖的肢体，这是从当地医生那里获得的，这被认为是画家和雕塑家更好地了解人类肌肉组织的一个有用方法，这样他们就可以更好地在艺术中准确地表现它。他们会组织在城市中的旅行，以绘制建筑物、树木和鸟类。正如达芬奇曾经建议的那样，任何有自尊心的艺术家都应该随身携带一本素描本，以便随时准备捕捉新的有趣的主题。

During the Renaissance, it was common for trainees to learn skills across different media such as fresco, panel painting using tempera or oil paints, large-scale sculpture in stone and metal, engraving, mosaic work, and the secrets of the goldsmith. Young artists learnt such practical skills as how to cast sculpture in metals like bronze and how to put these pieces together. They learnt the techniques of 'chasing' (finishing and polishing) and gilding the finished works. They learnt to mix colours and studied such techniques as chiaroscuro (the contrasting use of light and shade), sfumato (the transition of lighter into darker colours) and how to achieve a sense of perspective in a scene. Finally, and above all, an apprentice would learn how to reproduce the distinctive artistic methods of the workshop's master, the house 'style'.

在文艺复兴时期，受训者学习不同媒介的技能是很常见的，如壁画、使用蛋彩或油画颜料的板画、石头和金属的大型雕塑、雕刻、马赛克作品，以及金匠的技术活。年轻的艺术家们学习了诸如如何用青铜等金属铸造雕塑以及如何将这些作品组装起来等实用技能。他们学习了 " chasing "（整理和抛光）和为成品镀金的技术。他们学会了调色，并学习了诸如明暗对照法（明暗对比的使用）、晕涂法（浅色向深色的过渡）以及如何在场景中实现透视感等技巧。最重要的是，学徒将学习如何复制工作室主人的独特艺术方法，即工作室的 "风格"。

助手

An apprentice, having learned all of the above skills, would then graduate to becoming an assistant. Now he received a full salary and could work on behalf of the workshop's chief artist who then might sign his own name to the finished work of art (although some contracts stipulated important elements of a piece had to be created by the master himself). A gifted assistant would be trusted to fill in less important parts of a work the master was creating, for example, the hands of a figure, a background scene or applying areas of gold leaf. One can imagine that less-gifted assistants were entrusted with even more minor tasks like adding inscriptions and labels to works of art, a practice quite common in the Renaissance period.

学徒在学会了上述所有技能后，就会毕业成为助理。现在他可以领取全额工资，可以代表工作室的首席艺术家工作，然后他可以在完成的艺术作品上签上自己的名字（尽管有些合同规定作品的重要元素必须由大师亲自创作）。一个有天赋的助手会被充分信任，来填补大师正在创作的作品中不太重要的部分，例如，人物的手、背景场景或应用金箔的区域。我们可以想象，天赋较低的助手被委托完成更多的小任务，如为艺术品添加铭文和标签，这种做法在文艺复兴时期非常普遍。

An assistant might also join a guild of their city and so they could then produce works in their own right, even if they might still remain in the workshop rather than set up shop themselves, as was the case with Leonardo da Vinci early in his career. If they did want to establish their own workshop, then they first had to submit a 'masterpiece' for the approval of their local guild, which would then issue them with the right to do so (on payment of a fee). Another group within the workshop team, one rarely mentioned but nevertheless occasionally documented as existing, were slaves. Unlike an apprentice or assistant, they received no wage but a slave could, besides doing such obvious tasks as fetching, carrying, and cleaning, be trained in specific arts and produce works of their own.

助手也可以加入他们所在城市的公会，这样他们就可以以自己的名义制作作品，即使他们可能仍然留在作坊里而不是自己开店，就像达芬奇职业生涯早期的情况那样。如果他们确实想建立自己的作坊，那么他们首先必须提交一份 "杰作"供当地公会批准，然后公会会向他们颁发权利证明（支付一定的费用）。工作室团队中的另一个群体是奴隶，这个群体很少被提及，但偶尔也有文献记载。与学徒或助手不同的是，他们没有工资，但奴隶除了做取货、搬运和清洁等工作外，还可以接受特定艺术方面的培训，并制作自己的作品。

Besides the production of physical objects, ideas were studied and discussed in the workshop between the master and his assistants. Many noted artists built up their own collections of antiquities or portfolios of drawings of ancient art so that the study of these might help the workshop reproduce correctly anatomical details, proportion or classical motifs. There were, too, written texts discussing art and techniques. Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472 CE) wrote one such influential treatise, On Painting in 1435 CE. The master might also have contacts with other artists in other cities or abroad, another route for ideas and trends to filter down to the artists of tomorrow. As mentioned, these theoretical studies were an essential element in the progression of artists towards a more intellectual and elevated status in Renaissance society.

除了制作实物，大师和他的助手们还在车间里研究和讨论各种想法。许多著名的艺术家建立了自己的古物收藏或古代艺术图画组合，以便对这些东西的研究可以帮助工作室正确地再现解剖细节、比例或古典图案。此外，还有讨论艺术和技术的书面文本。莱昂·巴蒂斯塔·阿尔贝蒂（公元1404-1472年）在公元1435年写了一篇有影响力的论文——《论绘画》。大师们还可能与其他城市或国外的其他艺术家有联系，这是思想和趋势向未来的艺术家渗透的另一条途径。如前所述，这些理论研究是艺术家在文艺复兴社会中迈向更高的知识和地位的一个重要因素。

大规 模生产与 伪造 品

Despite all this attention to artistic learning and theory, many workshops became factories of art and most of their output was not the masterpieces we see today in museums worldwide but more mundane pieces meant as decoration in minor churches and less palatial homes. Perugino's workshop, for example, was noted for churning out endless altarpieces whose figures combined poses, heads, and limbs taken from a standard catalogue of drawings. These works were handmade and individualised by uniquely combining otherwise standard elements but they were the mass-produced art of the day and criticised as such by lovers of finer art. It was on these more humble works that most apprentices would have learnt their trade.

尽管对艺术学习和理论是如此的重视，许多作坊还成为了艺术工厂，他们的大部分作品不是我们今天在世界各地的博物馆中看到的杰作，而是更平凡的作品，作为小教堂和不太富裕的家庭的装饰。例如，佩鲁吉诺的作坊因不断地制造祭坛作品而闻名，其人物的姿势、头部和四肢都来自标准的图画目录。这些作品是手工制作的，并通过独特地结合其他标准元素来实现个性化，但它们是当时大规模生产的艺术，被更精细的艺术爱好者经查拿出来批评。大多数学徒都是在这些比较简陋的作品上学习技艺的。

Another method to increase revenue and spread the reputation of a workshop was to produce copper-plate prints. These became increasingly popular from the 1470s CE onwards and not only allowed those of more modest means to own a piece of art but they also helped spread artistic ideas across Europe. Artists such as Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528 CE), amongst many others, compiled portfolios of prints and sketches of interesting works of art by other artists. The level of craftsmanship employed to produce engravings could be very high, and fine prints even began to be collected by connoisseurs.

另一种增加收入和传播工作室声誉的方法是生产铜版画。从公元1470年起，这些铜版画越来越受欢迎，不仅使那些经济条件较差的人能够拥有一件艺术品，而且还有助于在欧洲传播艺术思想。阿尔布雷希特·丢勒（公元1471-1528年）等艺术家，以及其他许多人，将其他艺术家的有趣的艺术作品的版画和草图汇编成册。制作版画的工艺水平可能非常高，精美的版画甚至开始被鉴赏家们收藏。

Finally, a lucrative sideline - or for some more dubious workshops much more than that - was the production of fake antiquities. Such was the demand for Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek, and Roman pieces, some workshops produced modern versions and passed them off as ancient works, even sometimes staging an archaeological 'discovery' at a likely-looking site. Alternatively, new inscriptions were added to genuine antique pieces to make them more saleable. For the same reason, workshops often added missing limbs and noses to ancient statues or restyled older pieces, further blurring the lines between what was old and what was new art, a practice which has challenged art historians ever since.

最后，一个有利可图的副业——或者对一些更可疑的作坊来说，远不止如此——是生产假古董。由于市场对埃及、伊特鲁里亚、希腊和罗马作品的需求量很大，一些作坊制作了仿制版本，并将其作为古董出售，有时甚至在一个看起来很可能出现古董的地点进行考古"发现"。或者，在真正的古董上添加新的铭文，使其更易于销售。出于同样的原因，工作室经常在古代雕像上添加缺失的肢体和鼻子，或者对旧作品进行重新造型，从而进一步模糊了新旧艺术之间的界限，这种做法至今仍在挑战着艺术史学家。