中世纪世界生活手册（十一）
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伊斯兰神秘主义的兴起：苏菲主义
从八世纪开始，在伊拉克和叙利亚的沙漠中可以看到虔诚主义和禁欲主义的神秘主义者，他们遍布整个伊斯兰东方的清真寺走廊。现代学者们对苏菲主义的历史渊源并不认同。可以肯定的是，在《古兰经》中比较隐晦的段落中可以找到纯粹的伊斯兰教先例，这些段落需要一种神秘的解释，阿里·宾·阿比·塔利卜的例子也是如此，他对《古兰经》的神秘解释令人钦佩，跟随先知的一群苦行者被称为Ahl al-Suffa（“长凳上的人”），他们过着极端苦行和贫困的生活。外国的起源也是可能的，因为一些Ahl al-Suffa来自波斯和基督教拜占庭，那里的禁欲主义和神秘主义传统很强。在社会上，苏菲主义的兴起似乎是对伊斯兰政体的财富和世俗的拒绝，他们希望避开世俗的虚荣，把虔诚和苦行作为伊斯兰的理想。
From the eighth century pietistic and ascetic mystics could be found roaming the deserts of Iraq and Syria and haunting the corridors of mosques throughout the Islamic East. Scholars do not agree upon the historical origins of Sufism. To be sure, purely Islamic precedents may be found in the more cryptic passages of the Quran, which beg for an esoteric interpretation, as well as in the example of Ali ibn Abi Talib, whose mystical interpretation of the Quran was admired, and the group of ascetic companions of the Prophet known as the Ahl al-Suffa (“the people of the veranda”) who lived lives of extreme asceticism and poverty. Foreign origins are also possible, since a number of the Ahl al-Suffa were from Persia and Christian Byzantium, where ascetic and esoteric traditions were strong. Socially, the rise of Sufism would appear as a rejection of the wealth and worldliness of the Islamic polity and a desire to shun the vanities of the world and extol piety and asceticism as the Islamic ideal.
法蒂玛王朝的使命
在八世纪末反对阿拔斯王朝的内战中从巴格达逃到北非的什叶派后裔，于910年在易弗里基叶（突尼斯，易弗里基叶（阿拉伯语：إفريقية ），或称近马格里布（阿拉伯语：المغرب الأدنى ），中世纪北非地区名，源自罗马阿非利加行省，包括突尼西亚、阿尔及利亚东部和的黎波里塔尼亚地区）夺得政权。他们的领袖阿布·穆罕默德·阿卜杜拉·本·海珊（Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah，909-934年）声称自己是阿里和他的妻子、先知的女儿法蒂玛的后裔，因此他所建立的王朝又称法蒂玛王朝。970年，法蒂玛政府被民众起义赶出易弗里基叶，迁往埃及，并于972年在那里建立了开罗城。法蒂玛王朝的鼎盛时期，从马格里布到西西里岛、巴勒斯坦、叙利亚、红海沿岸、也门和阿拉伯希贾兹（汉志），都是法蒂玛帝国的疆域。
Descendants of the Shiites who fled Baghdad to North Africa during the civil war against the Abbasids in the late eighth century seized power in Ifriqiya (Tunisia) in 910. Their leader, Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah (r. 909–934), claimed descent from Ali and his wife, Fatima, the daughter of the Prophet, and thus called the dynasty the Fatimids. Driven out of Ifriqiya by a popular revolt in 970, the Fatimids relocated to Egypt, where they founded the city of Cairo in 972. At the height of its power, the Fatimid empire stretched from the Maghrib to Sicily, Palestine, Syria, the coast of the Red Sea, Yemen, and the Arabian Hijaz.
法蒂玛什叶派通过被称为“达瓦”(“邀请，呼唤”)的高度组织化的宣传机器机制进行传播。法蒂玛什叶派在九世纪末组织了“达瓦”，最初是在伊拉克，它是一个秘密的中央传教运动，其宣传员被称为“达伊”，他们接受过什叶派信仰的培训，被派往东边的雷伊、梅尔夫、呼罗珊、内沙布尔、河中地区、锡斯坦和印度；向南到也门和巴林；向西到马格里布地区。充满魅力的宣传以其对《古兰经》的深奥解释和什叶派伊玛目的英雄传说吸引了听众。法蒂玛王朝最著名的传教士是伟大的波斯诗人和旅行作家纳塞尔·胡斯洛（Nasr i-Khosraw，1004-1072），他是著名的旅行书《游记》（Safar-nama）的作者，他在书中描述了自己从逊尼派皈依什叶派伊斯兰教的过程。
Fatimid Shiism spread through the mechanism of a highly organized propaganda machine known as the dawa (“invitation, call”). Fatimid Shiites organized the dawa in the late ninth century originally out of Iraq, where it began as a secretive centralized missionary movement whose propagandists, known as dais, were trained in Shiite beliefs and sent forth eastward to Rayy, Merv, Khorasan, Nishapur, Transoxania, Sijistan, and India; southward to Yemen and Bahrain; and westward into the Maghrib. Charismatic dais beguiled their audiences with their esoteric interpretations of the Quran and the heroic legends of the Shiite imams. The Fatimids’ most famous missionary was the great Persian poet and travel writer Nasr i-Khosraw (1004–c. 1072), the author of the famous travel book Safar-nama (The book of the journey), in which he describes his conversion from Sunni to Shii Islam.
法蒂玛王朝最大的对手是巴格达的阿拔斯王朝，他们的许多征服行动都是以其为目标完成的。阿拔斯王朝于1011年发表了《巴格达宣言》，以驳斥法蒂玛王朝的合法性主张，该文件由阿拔斯王朝哈里发卡迪尔（Abu'l-ʿAbbas Ahmad ibn Ishaq，996-1021年，在此强调，此处作出修改，原文史实错误，原文如下）委托逊尼派和非法蒂玛王朝的什叶派学者组成的联合委员会进行编辑。他们指责法蒂玛王朝在阿里和法蒂玛的血统问题上撒谎，并声称他们的真正创始人是一个犹太人，因此是“异教徒”国家。哈基姆（哈基姆·比阿穆尔·阿拉，al-Hakim bi Amri Allah，法蒂玛王朝哈里发，996年至1021年在位）还在学术上与阿拔斯王朝竞争，于1005年建立了Dar al-Ilm（“知识之家”），在那里，学者们同时教授哲学、天文学与伊斯兰科学。(哈基姆是一个偏执狂和反复无常的统治者，他还因迫害犹太人和基督徒以及破坏圣墓教堂而闻名）。法蒂玛的宣传仪式包括开创 “开斋节”（mawlids），正式庆祝穆罕默德-阿里、法蒂玛和其他先知家族成员（Ahl al-Bayt）的生日，以及用塔兹耶（taziya）重建侯赛因的殉教过程来庆祝阿舒拉节。
The Fatimids’ greatest rivals were the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad, at whose expense many of their conquests were made. Abbasid propagandists repulsed Fatimid claims of legitimacy by issuing in 1011 the Baghdad Manifesto, a document commissioned by the Abbasid caliph al-Hakim bi Amri Allah (r. 996–1021) to be redacted by a joint commission of Sunni and non-Fatimid Shiite scholars. They accused the Fatimids of lying about their descent from Ali and Fatima and claimed instead that their true founder was a Jew and therefore an “infidel.” AlHakim also competed intellectually with the Abbasids, founding in 1005 the rival Dar al-Ilm (“House of Knowledge”), where philosophy and astronomy were taught alongside the Islamic sciences. (A paranoid and erratic ruler, al-Hakim is also known for his persecution of Jews and Christians and his destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.) Fatimid propagandistic rituals included the invention of the mawlids, the official celebration of the birthdays of Muhammad Ali, Fatima, and the other members of the Prophet’s family (Ahl al-Bayt) and the emotive celebration of Ashura with passion plays (taziya) reconstructing the martyrdom of Husayn.
法蒂玛王朝于11世纪中叶开始衰落，因为马格里布-兹里德柏柏尔人(Zirid dynasty)在1040年左右反叛并建立了自己的王朝。在塞尔柱人和十字军的压力下，他们对黎凡特的控制力减弱了，领土缩小到埃及。1169年，阿尤布王朝的王子萨拉丁（卒于1193年）征服了埃及，并赶走了法蒂玛政权。
The Fatimid dynasty began to decline during the mid-11th century as Maghribi Zirid Berbers rebelled and founded their own dynasty circa 1040. Their control of the Levant diminished under pressure from the Seljuks and the crusaders, reducing their holdings to Egypt. In 1169 the Ayyubid prince Saladin (d. 1193) conquered Egypt, ousting the Fatimid dynasty.
阿尤布王朝和马穆鲁克
Mamluk（马穆鲁克）一词的意思是“奴隶”，在伊斯兰历史背景下，它特指招募奴隶的制度，这些奴隶通常来自斯拉夫和土耳其，然后加入军队。这种做法始于阿拔斯王朝哈里发穆塔西姆（al-Mutasim，穆阿台绥姆，833-842年）的统治时期，他并不受欢迎，这让他专门建立了一个效忠于自己的精英军团。在战斗中被俘的土耳其青年会被带到萨迈拉，在那里他们会接受基本的伊斯兰教育，并接受战争艺术和策略的训练。奴隶制保证了马穆鲁克与政治机构没有任何联系，因此不会对阿拔斯王朝的统治者构成威胁。
The term mamluk means “slave,” and in the context of Islamic history it refers specifically to the institution of recruiting slaves, most often of Slavic and Turkish origin, into the ranks of the army. The practice began during the reign of the Abbasid caliph al-Mutasim (r. 833–842), whose unpopularity led him to create an elite regiment of soldiers exclusively loyal to him. Turkish youths captured during the course of battles were taken to Samarra, where they were given a rudimentary Islamic education and trained in the art and strategies of war. The slave system ensured that the mamluks had no ties with the political establishment and thus would pose no threat to the Abbasid rulers.
奴隶制士兵的制度在伊斯兰世界迅速蔓延。他们在击败法蒂玛王朝的阿尤布王朝（库尔德人的）的军队中尤为突出。埃及征服者萨拉丁脱离了塞尔柱人，并宣布建立自己的王朝，并于1174年获得了苏丹的称号。他在耶路撒冷的雅各布津渡之围（1179年）中给十字军造成了惊人的损失。当拉丁十字军国家开始骚扰和谋杀穆斯林朝圣者和商人时，萨拉丁对耶路撒冷发起了进攻，并于1187年占领了整座城市。阿尤布王朝将其领地扩大到整个埃及、叙利亚、也门、伊拉克的部分地区、麦加和阿拉伯南部。
The institution of slave soldiers spread across the Islamic world. They were especially prominent in the army of the Ayyubids, the Kurdish dynasty who vanquished the Fatimids. Saladin, the conqueror of Egypt, broke away from his Seljuk patrons and declared his own dynasty, assuming the title of sultan in 1174. He inflicted stunning defeats upon the crusaders at the Battle of Jacob’s Ford (1179) in Jerusalem. When the Latin Crusader States began to harass and murder Muslim pilgrims and traders, Saladin launched an offensive against Jerusalem, capturing the entire city in 1187. The Ayyubids would extend their domain over the whole of Egypt, Syria, Yemen, parts of Iraq, Mecca, and southern Arabia.
萨拉丁于1193年去世后，阿尤布王朝陷入了内战，每一方都用自己的马穆鲁克士兵对付对手的士兵。这种关于继承权的争斗成为阿尤布王朝统治的特有现象。每当一个统治者获胜时，他都必须给予支持他的马穆鲁克更多的权力，包括政府中的许多职位和大量的土地所有权（iqtas）。最后，一位名叫艾巴克（Aibek）的马穆鲁克士兵将军（卒于1257年）在1250年谋杀了阿尤布王朝的苏丹图兰沙阿，为自己夺取了权力，建立了巴赫里王朝（1250-1382）。最杰出的马穆鲁克苏丹是拜巴尔一世（al-Zahir Baibars，1260-77年），他在第七次十字军东征中战胜了法国国王路易九世。十年后，拜巴尔杀死了马穆鲁克苏丹忽秃思（Qutuz）并夺取了政权。
After Saladin’s death in 1193, the Ayyubids descended into civil war, each party using its mamluk soldiers against those of rivals. Such squabbles over succession became endemic to Ayyubid rule. Each time a ruler prevailed he had to grant more power to the mamluks who supported him, including many positions in the government and extensive landholdings (iqtas). Finally, a mamluk soldier-general named Aibek (d. 1257) murdered the Ayyubid sultan Turanshah in 1250 and seized power for himself, establishing the Bahri Mamluk dynasty (1250– 1382). By far the most extraordinary Mamluk sultan was al-Zahir Baibars (r. 1260–77), who vanquished the French king Louis IX in the Seventh Crusade. A decade later Baibars killed the Mamluk sultan Qutuz and seized power.
历届马穆鲁克王朝继续统治着埃及和叙利亚，直到1517年。马穆鲁克形成了一个前所未有的军事国家，其中许多高级职位都掌握在这些奴隶士兵手中，文职官员也要接受他们的监督。由于他们的奴隶出身、非阿拉伯血统以及对错综复杂的伊斯兰法律和文化的相对陌生，马穆鲁克明智地培养了宗教机构和苏菲教团的支持，而这些宗教机构和苏菲教团的重要性在这一时期已经越来越高。他们利用伊斯兰教的虔诚捐赠（awqaf）制度，涵盖了所有的基础，并建立了许多清真寺和宗教学校，四个逊尼派法律学校（madhhabs）都有代表。为了进一步提高他们的知名度，他们还赞助流行的宗教节日，如穆罕默德的生日，并向苏菲教派和穆斯林圣人的圣地慷慨解囊。马穆鲁克人在建筑方面表现出色，创造了自己独特的风格，包括石雕的豪华装饰图案、大理石马赛克、高耸的尖塔和雕刻精美的大理石米哈拉布（清真寺中指示麦加方向的壁龛）。
Successive Mamluk dynasties would continue to reign over Egypt and Syria until 1517. The Mamluks formed an unprecedented military state in which many senior posts were in the hands of these slave-soldiers, and civilian officials were subject to their supervision. Because of their slave origins, non-Arab pedigree, and relative unfamiliarity with the intricacies of Islamic law and culture, the Mamluks wisely cultivated the support of the religious establishment and the Sufi orders that had grown in importance by this time. Using the Islamic system of pious endowments (awqaf), they covered all their bases and founded numerous mosques and madrasas where all four Sunni legal schools (madhhabs) were represented. To increase their popularity further, they also patronized popular religious festivals, such as Muhammad’s birthday, and gave generously to the Sufi orders and the shrines of Muslim saints. The Mamluks excelled in architecture, creating their own distinct style of lavishly decorated motifs carved in stone, marble mosaics, towering minarets, and exquisitely carved marble mihrabs (the niche in the mosque indicating the direction of Mecca).
从穆斯林角度看十字军东征
中世纪的基督徒和穆斯林对同样的战争和战争事件有着截然不同的概念。对于中世纪的基督徒来说，十字军东征是收复基督教世界失地的宗教战争，尤其是圣地，基督曾在那里生活、传教和去世。这些土地已被穆斯林征服，但大多数人口仍是基督徒。阿拉伯历史学家并没有以同样的方式看待十字军东征，也没有使用过十字军或十字军东征这个词。穆斯林编年史家细致入微地描述了与入侵者的战斗，用比较中性的民族或地理名称来称呼他们的敌人，如用“法兰克人”来形容拉丁裔基督徒，用 “罗马人”（al-Rum）来形容拜占庭人。穆斯林编年史家和基督教编年史家一样，也使用 “异教徒”（al-kafirun）等一般贬义词来描述他们的敌人。有些人甚至使用了邪恶的文字游戏，将阿拉伯文的圣墓教堂（Kanisat al-Qiyama）的名字改为垃圾教堂或粪堆教堂（Kanisat al-Qumama）。穆斯林编年史家还强调了基督教徒的背信弃义，他们一次又一次地背弃了停战协议。他们确实被十字军的野蛮残忍所震惊，1099年十字军占领耶路撒冷后，成千上万的穆斯林平民和犹太人被屠杀。
Christians and Muslims in the Middle Ages had remarkably different concepts for the same war and warlike events. For medieval Christians the Crusades were religious wars to recover the lost lands of Christendom, especially the Holy Land, where Christ had lived, taught, and died. These had been conquered by the Muslims, but the majority of the population was still Christian. Arab historians do not view the Crusades in the same manner nor did they ever use the word crusade or crusader. Muslim chroniclers describe the battles against the invaders in meticulous detail referring to their enemies by more neutral ethnic or geographic names, such as “the Franks” to describe the Latin Christians and “the Romans” (al-Rum) to describe the Byzantines. Muslim chroniclers, as did their Christian counterparts, also used generic pejoratives such as “the infidels” (al-kafirun) to describe their enemies. Some even used wicked plays on words, converting the name of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Arabic (Kanisat al-Qiyama) to the Church of the Dungheap (Kanisat al-Qumama). Muslim chroniclers also emphasized the perfidy of the Christians who time and again reneged on truce agreements. They were truly stunned by the barbaric cruelty of the crusaders, whose capture of Jerusalem in 1099 resulted in the slaughter of tens of thousands of civilian Muslims and Jews.
穆斯林可能也意识到，在十字军使命的同时，对他们进行了神学和文学上的攻击。在第五次十字军东征期间（1219年），方济各会的创始人圣方济各试图让苏丹改信。欧洲的修道院和大学的神学家们坚信他们的宗教的优越性，并受到穆斯林军事胜利的威胁，因此产生了大量的宗教论战。甚至在第一次十字军东征之前，基督教神学家就担心伊斯兰教是一种威胁，因为伊斯兰教的许多征服都发生在基督教的土地上，许多基督徒已经皈依伊斯兰教或在文化上被阿拉伯化。基督教对西班牙和西西里岛穆斯林的征服导致了阿拉伯学术在欧洲的开始，这门学科后来被称为东方学。在西欧的修道院里，勤奋的修道士们学习阿拉伯语，翻译《古兰经》，并研究其他穆斯林文本，以便能够拯救基督徒的灵魂，使其不至于皈依伊斯兰教，而且他们希望在未来的某个时间使穆斯林皈依基督教。修道学者们还阅读了先知的传记，并开始撰写他们自己的版本，以“证明”他是一个假先知。在圣地、西班牙和北非活动的方济各会传教士在向被俘的穆斯林布道时使用了这种宣传。
Muslims may also have been aware of the theological and literary assault upon them being waged simultaneously with the crusader mission. During the Fifth Crusade (1219) no less than Saint Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscan friars, attempted to convert the sultan. Convinced of their religion’s superiority and threatened by the Muslims’ military successes, theologians in the monasteries and universities of Europe produced a great amount of religious polemic. Even prior to the launching of the First Crusade, Christian theologians feared Islam as a threat in view of the fact that so many of the Islamic conquests had occurred in Christian lands and that many Christians had converted to Islam or become culturally Arabized. The Christian conquests of Muslim Spain and Sicily led to the beginnings of Arab scholarship in Europe, the discipline that later became known as Orientalism. In the monasteries of western Europe, studious monks learned Arabic, translated the Quran, and studied other Muslim texts in order to be able to save Christian souls from converting to Islam and, they hoped, at a future time to convert Muslims to Christianity. The monk-scholars also read the biographies of the Prophet and began to write their own versions in order to “prove” that he was a false prophet. Franciscan preachers operating in the Holy Land, Spain, and North Africa used such propaganda in the sermons they preached to captive Muslims.
金帐汗国和“鞑靼人的枷锁”
穆斯林和基督徒都有理由害怕13世纪的蒙古人入侵。在一个类似于三至五世纪哥特式入侵欧洲的过程中，蒙古人被赶出了东亚的蒙古，并征服了罗斯和东欧的大部分地区。人们提出了许多入侵的原因，从影响作物生产的气候变化，到来自中国人对其贸易路线的威胁，再到其统治者成吉思汗（约1162-1227）的神圣使命感。蒙古人建立了一个在罗斯历史上称为“金帐汗国”的国家。他们强大的帝国从中国延伸到欧洲中部。蒙古军队不分青红皂白地征服了伊斯兰教、拜占庭和日耳曼统治下的领土，在13世纪20年代占领了撒马尔罕和布哈拉；在13世纪50年代占领了罗斯、中欧、伊朗北部和高加索地区；并在1258年对巴格达进行了毁灭性的洗劫，烧毁了这个文明世界的“装饰物”。他们从那里前往叙利亚和巴勒斯坦。在那里，马穆鲁克苏丹拜巴尔一世在阿音札鲁特战役中击溃了蒙古帝国的军队。
Muslims and Christians alike had reason to fear the Mongol invasions during the 13th century. In a process similar to the Gothic invasions of Europe in the third to fifth centuries, the Mongols were driven out of Mongolia in East Asia and conquered much of Russia and eastern Europe. Numerous reasons have been suggested for the invasions, from climatic change affecting crop production, to threats to their trade routes from the Chinese, to a sense of divine mission of their ruler, Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227). The Mongols established a state known in Russian annals as the Khanate of the Golden Horde. Their mighty empire extended from China to central Europe. Indiscriminately, Mongol armies conquered territories under Islamic, Byzantine, and German rule, seizing Samarkand and Bukhara in the 1220s; Russia, central Europe, northern Iran, and the Caucasus in the 1250s; and perpetrating the devastating sacking of Baghdad in 1258, burning and destroying what was the ornament of the civilized world. From there they moved on to Syria and Palestine, where the Mamluk sultan al-Zahir Baibars routed them in one of the most extraordinary victories in all world history, the Battle of Ayn Jalut.
可能是由于在拜巴尔手中的失败，本世纪第三季度，成吉思汗的孙子、金帐汗国的领主别儿哥（1257-66）皈依了伊斯兰教。他与埃及的马穆鲁克苏丹签订条约和建立政治往来，开始了将其境内的蒙古人和土耳其人打造成一个统一的穆斯林国家的进程。他们在东欧被称为鞑靼人，是以蒙古部落之一的名字命名的。他们从13世纪到15世纪的统治时期在俄罗斯被称为“鞑靼枷锁”。
Possibly as a result of his defeat at the hands of Baibars, in the third quarter of the century Berke Khan (1257–66), the grandson of Genghis Khan and lord of the Golden Horde, converted to Islam. He entered treaties and political arrangements with the Mamluk sultan of Egypt and began the process that forged the Mongol and Turkish people of his realm into a unified Muslim nation. They were known in eastern Europe as the Tatars, after the name of one of the Mongol tribes. Their period of domination from the 13th to the 15th century was called in Russia the Tatar Yoke.
奥斯曼人
早在11世纪，土耳其军队和迁徙的土耳其部落就已经从拜占庭手中夺取了安纳托利亚的大部分地区，将这片曾经是希腊和基督教的土地转变为土耳其和穆斯林的土地。基督教的东部堡垒，在漫长世纪中抵御了阿拉伯人的进攻中，第一次遭受了重大失败。随着时间的推移，这些失败重新划分了基督教和伊斯兰教之间的边界。先是在塞尔柱苏丹的统治下，然后在奥斯曼苏丹的统治下，土耳其人创造了最伟大和最持久的伊斯兰帝国之一。让人联想到阿拉伯人第一次来到西班牙，1352年，一支土耳其部队被招募为一个基督教权力竞争者的盟友。土耳其人占领了达达尼尔海峡东岸加里波利北部的Tzympe要塞（Çimpe Castle）。
Already in the 11th century Turkish armies and migrating Turkish tribesmen had won the greater part of Anatolia from the Byzantines, transforming a land once Greek and Christian into a Turkish and Muslim land. The eastern bastion of Christendom, which for so many centuries had withstood the Arabs, suffered the first of a series of defeats. In time these redrew the frontier between Christendom and Islam. First under the Seljuk sultans and then under the Ottoman sultans, the Turks created one of the greatest and most enduring of the Islamic empires. Reminiscent of the first Arab arrival in Spain, a Turkish force in 1352 was recruited as allies of a Christian contender for power. The Turks occupied the fortress of Tzympe north of Gallipoli on the eastern shores of the Dardanelles.
一个世纪后，巴尔干半岛的穆斯林主人发动了最后的进攻，在1453年将君士坦丁堡纳入他们在欧洲和亚洲的新帝国疆域。奥斯曼苏丹从他们的首都伊斯坦布尔——他们重新命名了君士坦丁堡——发起了一系列军事远征，将他们带到匈牙利平原。1529年和1683年，穆斯林两次抵达维也纳城墙。在一个半世纪的时间里，土耳其军队从布达和贝尔格莱德的基地发动军事行动。
A century later the Muslim masters of the whole Balkan Peninsula mounted the final attack that in 1453 added Constantinople to their new imperial structure in Europe and Asia. From their capital in Istanbul—as they renamed Constantinople—the Ottoman sultans launched a series of further military expeditions that took them to the plains of Hungary. Twice, in 1529 and again in 1683, the Muslims reached the walls of Vienna. For a century and a half Turkish armies operated from bases in Buda and Belgrade.
战争是文化交流的载体
在伊斯兰教兴起之前，土耳其人和拜占庭人就已经互相争斗和无情地屠杀了。然而，土耳其人和阿拉伯人向拜占庭士兵传授了重要的军事战术，他们利用这些战术取得了优势。拜占庭的指挥官们在战场上和战营中都观察着土耳其人和阿拉伯人。这些穆斯林的军事理念如下：始终带着一支稳定而充足的步兵进入战场；在军队的前哨保持一个精心设计的纠察队和哨兵，即骑马的哨兵，以观察敌人的动向，防止出现意外；避免在敌人的部署和安排不能被理解的破碎地带作战；保持大量的预备队和侧翼守卫；在战斗中始终保护好后卫，如果可能的话，军队的两翼也要有天然的障碍物，如河流、沼泽或悬崖来掩护 [这将挫败土耳其人对军队两翼或营地守卫进行循环攻击的惯用手段。］ ；始终加固营地；千万不要贸然追击撤退的部队，也不要让步兵在第一次成功的战斗后走散。
Turks and Byzantines fought and slaughtered one another mercilessly even before the rise of Islam. However, Turks and Arabs taught Byzantine soldiers important military tactics that they used to advantage. Byzantine commanders watched Turks and Arabs both on the battlefield and in the war camp. Stated as rules, these Muslim military concepts were the following: Always take a steady and sufficient body of infantry into the field. Maintain an elaborate screen of pickets and vedettes, mounted sentries placed in advance of the army outpost to observe enemy movements and guard against surprises. Avoid fighting in broken ground where the enemy’s dispositions and arrangements cannot be appreciated or understood. Keep large reserves and flank guards. Fight with the rear guard always protected, and, if possible, the army’s wings also covered by natural obstacles such as rivers, marshes, or cliffs. [That would foil the usual Turkish device of circular attacks on the army’s wings or on the camp guard.] Always fortify the camp. Never rashly pursue a retreating force, and never allow the infantry to get separated after a first successful battle.
金帐汗国解体后，设在喀山、阿斯特拉罕和克里米亚的继承汗国继续进行统治。在其无法统治的地方，他们袭击了东欧的部分地区。最后一个汗国于1783年在克里米亚灭亡。从1475年起，克里米亚的各汗国成为奥斯曼的附庸。鞑靼人的部队经常在奥斯曼人的指挥下与欧洲敌人作战。在中世纪末期和近现代初期，穆斯林对欧洲的物质财富和武装力量表现出越来越多的尊重。这表现在欧洲富丽堂皇、高效的制造业和不断变化的贸易条件，使欧洲对于穆斯林国家有利可图。军事力量的平衡转移到了基督教徒身上，他们给穆斯林带来了一连串的军事挫败。
After the breakup of the Khanate of the Golden Horde, the successor khanates based in Kazan, Astrakhan, and the Crimea continued to rule. Where they could not rule, they raided parts of eastern Europe. The last khanate was extinguished in the Crimea in 1783. From 1475 the khans of the Crimea became vassals of the Ottomans. Tatar forces often fought under Ottoman commanders against European enemies. By the close of the medieval period and the dawn of the early modern period, Muslims evinced increasing respect for the material wealth and armed might of Europe. This was manifested in the opulent, efficient European manufactures and the changing conditions of trade that favored Europe over the Muslim nations. The balance of military power shifted to the Christians, who inflicted on the Muslims a long succession of military defeats.
伊斯兰帝国的关键人物
Prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632) 穆罕默德
穆罕默德·伊本·阿卜杜勒·阿拉是先知穆罕默德，是《古兰经》等一系列神圣启示的接受者。穆罕默德在这些启示的基础上建立了一个新的宗教——伊斯兰教；一个新的政体——乌玛；以及一个新的文明——Dar al-Islam（和平之家）。622年，他被迫从家乡麦加迁徙到麦地那，然后建立了宗教和法律结构，指导新兴的伊斯兰社区的组织。《古兰经》和穆罕默德的个人榜样——圣行，是伊斯兰文明赖以存在的两座大厦。
Muhammad ibn Abdallah was the prophet Muhammad, the recipient of a series of divine revelations known as the Quran. Muhammad founded a new religion, Islam; a new polity, the umma; and a new civilization, Dar al-Islam, on the basis of these revelations. Forced to migrate from his native Mecca to Medina in 622, he went on to establish the religious and legal structure that guided the organization of the burgeoning Islamic community. The Quran and Muhammad’s personal example, the Sunna, are the two edifices upon which the Islamic civilization was built.
Umar ibn al-Khattab (592–644; r. 634– 644) 欧麦尔·本·赫塔卜
伊斯兰教正确引导的哈里发中的第二位，也是伊斯兰教最重要的军事指挥官之一。伊斯兰帝国主要是在欧麦尔统治时期建立的。他从萨珊人手中征服了美索不达米亚和波斯，从拜占庭人手中征服了埃及、叙利亚、巴勒斯坦、北非和亚美尼亚。他开始了伊斯兰法的编纂过程。欧麦尔清真寺就建在他攻占耶路撒冷后在圣殿山祈祷的地方。他于644年被暗杀。
The second of the rightly guided caliphs of Islam and one of its most important military commanders. The Islamic empire was built mostly during Umar’s reign. He conquered Mesopotamia and Persia from the Sassanians and Egypt, Syria, Palestine, North Africa, and Armenia from the Byzantines. He began the process of the codification of Islamic law. The Mosque of Umar was built on the site where he prayed on the Temple Mount after the capture of Jerusalem. He was assassinated in 644.
Ali ibn Abi Talib (c. 599–661; r. 656– 661) 阿里·本·阿比·塔利卜
先知穆罕默德的侄子和女婿，受正确引导的哈里发中的第四位。他与倭马亚总督穆阿维亚在哈里发继承权上的冲突引发了伊斯兰教中逊尼派和什叶派之间的大分裂，并出现了哈里发运动。阿里和他的党派，即什叶派，坚信先知指定阿里继承他的位置。尽管逊尼派和什叶派之间存在分裂，但前者也承认他是穆罕默德生活和古兰经解释的最权威来源之一，并颂扬他在伊斯兰教战斗中的英雄主义。苏菲派神秘主义者称他激发了神秘主义的崛起。
The nephew and son-in-law of the prophet Muhammad and the fourth of the rightly guided caliphs. His conflict with the Umayyad governor Muawiyya over the succession to the caliphate sparked the great schism in Islam between Sunnis and Shiites and the emergence of the Kharijite movement. Ali and his partisans, the Shia, were convinced that the Prophet had designated Ali to succeed him. Despite the schism between Sunnis and Shiites, the former also recognize him as one of the most authoritative sources of the life of Muhammad and quranic interpretation and extol his heroism in the battles of Islam. Sufi mystics claim him as inspiring the rise of mysticism.
Harun al-Rashid (766–809; r. 786–809) 哈伦·拉希德
阿拔斯王朝哈里发中最著名的一位，他的宫廷在《一千零一夜》中得到了永生。在他统治期间，巴格达作为世界上最重要的首都而繁荣起来。哈伦·拉希德与古中国的统治者和查理曼建立了外交关系，并送他（查理曼）非凡的大象Abu l-Abbas作为礼物。他与拜占庭帝国进行了许多成功的战斗，并用希腊人的贡品装饰他的豪华宫廷。
The most famous of the Abbasid caliphs, whose court is immortalized in The Thousand and One Nights. During his reign Baghdad flourished as the preeminent capital of the world. Harun al-Rashid had established diplomatic relations with the ruler of China and with Charlemagne, sending him the extraordinary elephant Abu l-Abbas as a present. He waged successful battles with the Byzantine Empire, financing his sumptuous court with the tribute from the Greeks.
Abd al-Rahman III (891–961; r. 912– 961) 阿卜杜拉赫曼三世
科尔多瓦的埃米尔和后来的哈里发，他在安达卢西亚的倭马亚王朝中统治时间最长、最成功。他于929年宣布建立科尔多瓦倭马亚王朝哈里发，以对抗他在北非法蒂玛和巴格达的对手。在他统治期间，科尔多瓦与巴格达互相抗衡。
Emir and later caliph of Córdoba, he had the longest and most successful of the reigns of the Umayyads of al-Andalus. He declared the Córdoban Umayyad caliphate in 929 to counter his rivals in Fatimid North Africa and Baghdad. During his reign Córdoba rivaled Baghdad.
Saladin (1138–1193; r. 1169–1193) 萨拉丁
库尔德人阿尤布王朝的苏丹，1169年在埃及打败了法蒂玛王朝的哈里发，建立了阿尤布王朝。萨拉丁是穆斯林在圣地对十字军发动圣战的英雄。1187年，他从拉丁十字军手中重新征服了耶路撒冷，给他们以沉重的打击。1192年，萨拉丁和英格兰国王狮心王理查一世（Richard the Lionhearted，1189-99年）签署了《拉姆拉条约》，双方同意耶路撒冷将继续由穆斯林管理。两位统治者的相互尊重在欧洲的宫廷浪漫小说中得到了颂扬。
Kurdish Ayyubid sultan who defeated the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt in 1169 and founded the Ayyubid dynasty. Saladin was the hero of the Muslim jihad against the crusaders in the Holy Land. He dealt a crushing blow to the Latin crusaders by reconquering Jerusalem from them in 1187. In 1192 Saladin and the English king Richard the Lionhearted (r. 1189–99) signed the Treaty of Ramla, whereby it was agreed that Jerusalem would remain under Muslim rule. The mutual respect of the two rulers was extolled in the courtly romances of Europe.
《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）
By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones
未完待续！
