Psychology

Previous philosophers ascribed many functions to the soul, but Descartes ascribed just one—thought. If we are machines, we are machines that learn. 唯物主义的两个分支都把人的行为当成机器，一个是大脑机器一个是被经验驱动的机器 As an illustration, Kant referred to a child’s learning of language. The specific words and grammar that the child acquires are a posteriori knowledge, but the child’s ability to learn a language depends on a priori knowledge. The latter includes built-in rules about what to attend to and how to store and organize the linguistic sounds that are heard, in ways that allow the child eventually to make sense of the sounds. Kant also argued that to make sense of the physical world, the child must already have certain fundamental physical concepts, such as the concepts of space and time, built into his or her mind Kant understood that the human mind has some innate furnishings, but he had no scientific explanation of how those furnishings could have been built or why they function as they do. That understanding finally came in 1859 when the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1 the member of the pair that is the same sex as the intruder drives the intruder away. Such jealous-like behavior helps to keep the mated pair intact. learning psychology. For historical reasons (explained in Chapter 8), this specialty is also called behavioral psychology. This means that many social-psychological explanations are also cognitive explanations. From an intellectual point of view, the problem of how any entity normally works—whether it is an automobile, a computer, or a human being—is much more interesting than the problem of how it breaks down. According to some psychologists, therefore, we should define our science as the study of behavior, or as the study of the brain and behavior, and leave the unobservable mind out of it. Most psychologists, however, find the concept of mind to be very useful and believe that a psychological level of analysis provides a different understanding of human behavior than a biological one. Having a theory of the brain does not replace having a theory of the mind (Bjorklund, 1997a). We can infer characteristics of the mind by observing behavior, and then we can use those inferences to make predictions about further behavior. Gravity can’t be seen directly, either—it is inferred by observing the behavior of physical entities; yet physicists find the concept of gravity to be very useful mind首先分为两部分，一是过去记忆和程序技能，二是当下意识体验。另外分两种定义方式，1是传统心理学或哲学的思辨式，2是行为或神经生理基础的。前者其实可以说是理论定义，作用就相当于理论推论，有用，但有可能犯错。后者相当于操作定义，描述性定义，无法作出有用的推论，但基本不会犯错。科学需要理论和精确性，理念和经验，演绎和归纳之间的平衡。 even after he had learned what they were, he had to make a conscious effort to prevent himself from sending them after asking a 同时也正明马的社会认知学习能力 To suggest a complex, extraordinary explanation of some behavior requires that all simple and conventional explanations be considered first and judged inadequate. Moreover, the simpler the explanation is, the better it tends to be. This is referred to as parsimony, or Occam’s razor 先排除简单的解释，不要轻易接受过于复杂的解释。越复杂的出错率越高 Science walks on two legs: theory and observations. A scientific theory becomes more believable as repeated, genuine attempts to disprove it fail. 证伪与证真过程类似都是实验，区别在于证伪是寻找潜在的其他影响变量，即未被考虑的或认为不会影响的控制变量，改变该变量观测因变量是否受影响，从而发现原结论的界限。证真只是重复原实验，无法提供新信息。 A useful way to categorize the various research strategies used by psychologists is to think of them as varying along the following three dimensions (Hendricks et al., 1990): 1. Theresearchdesign,ofwhichtherearethreebasictypes:experiments, correlational studies, and descriptive studies. 2. Thesettinginwhichthestudyisconducted,ofwhichtherearetwo basic types: field and laboratory. 3. Thedata-collectionmethod,ofwhichtherearetwobasictypes:self- report and observation. One technique for minimizing the Hawthorne effect takes advantage of the phenomenon of habituation, a decline in response when a stimulus is repeatedly or continuously present. Although much of this noncoding DNA was once called “junk DNA” because scientists believed it had no purpose, recent evidence indicates that about 80% of DNA serves some function, such as regulating the activity of the coding DNA (ENCODE Project Consortium, 2012). Geneticists now distinguish between coding genes, which code for unique protein molecules, and regulatory genes, which work through various biological means to help activate or suppress specific coding genes and thereby influence the body’s development. Recent research comparing human and chimpanzee DNA suggests that the biggest genetic differences between the two species lie in certain regulatory genes that affect the development of the brain  Environment, as used in this context, refers to every aspect of an individual and his or her surroundings except the genes themselves.  Genes still provide the critical instructions for developing into a male or female animal, but the context in which the genes are expressed (a warm versus a cool temperature) determines the sex that will form. The sight, sound, or smell of newborns activates a particular gene. The activated gene produces a protein molecule that stimulates activity in a specific cluster of brain cells that are known to be crucial for the motivation and organization of such behaviors as retrieving young to a nest and hovering over them.  There is good reason to believe that prolonged behavioral effects that derive from experience, including those that we call “learning,” involve the activation of genes (Spencer et al., 2009). Experiences activate genes, which produce proteins, which in turn alter the function of some of the neural circuits in the brain and thereby change the individual’s behavior. 突触的改变需要蛋白质，也就是某些基因的激活 FIGURE 3.2 Identical twins These 13-year-old girls have the same genotype, but they obviously differ in at least one aspect of their phenotype. The differences among cells in your body—such as muscle cells and skin cells—arise from the differential activation of their genes, not from different gene content. Although the chromosomes in each pair look the same, they do not contain precisely the same genes. It may seem ironic that the very cells you use for “reproduction” are the only cells in your body that cannot, in theory, reproduce you. By producing diverse offspring, parents reduce the risk that all of their offspring will die as a result of some unforeseen change in the environment. 某些基因疾病在和平时期也许是缺陷，但如果发生大灾难比如气候或传染病，某些特定变异基因的人类也许才是唯一活下去的。某种程度上，我们都是变种人的后代。 For example, if you cross red snapdragons (a kind of flower) with white snapdragons, the offspring will have pink flowers, because neither the red nor the white allele is dominant over the other. People with a single sickle-cell gene are less likely to die of malaria because their red blood cells are poor at supporting the growth of the malaria parasite. 镰刀血细胞基因的杂合子，也就是只包含一个隐性的一对等位基因，既不会显性表达镰刀，也不会被疟疾感染。显性疾病基因显然会被淘汰，但隐性很可能被保留。但如果他们跟别的种族杂交就很可能把这个隐性基因带过去，而外界可能不需要抵抗疟疾。这样看种族隔离甚至有一点道理。每个物种的基因都是适应当地环境，无法很好地迁移到别的环境。 Genetic diversity produced by sexual reproduction promotes survival of genes by reducing the chance that all offspring will die. 为了让整个种族（不是个人而是群体）在更长的时间跨度上延续（不是现在的享受而是应对将来可能出现的各种挑战），需要牺牲一部分个体，需要牺牲过于适应当下环境带来的享受。 Scott and Fuller’s work demonstrates only that the difference between cocker spaniels and basenji hounds in a particular test of fear is controlled by a single gene. 只是对人的恐惧而不是对任何的恐惧 But most anatomical and behavioral differences among individuals of any species are measurable in degree, not type. 因为大部分行为或表现的定义本身就很宽泛，包含了很多子行为或子功能，也就是包含了很多基因型和表现型。 For single-gene characteristics the effects of selective breeding are immediate, but for polygenic characteristics the effects are gradual and cumulative over generations. To control for the possibility that the offspring were somehow learning to be bright or dull from their mothers, Tryon cross-fostered the rats so that some of the offspring from each strain were raised by mothers in the other strain. The behavioral differences between two strains found in one laboratory often fail to occur in another laboratory, apparently because of subtle differences in the way the animals are housed or tested (Cabib et al., 2000; Crabbe et al., 1999). 也就是说，在培育过程中，对能力的影响还有无关变量，比如测量手段和实验环境。这些外在因素共同对基因进行塑造，但无法排除。所测量的能力是情境特异性的而不是一般能力。 more interested in exploring the maze’s blind alleys. In later studies, another researcher found that Tryon’s “dull” rats were as good as the “bright” ones, and sometimes even better, at other learning tasks (Searle, 1949). We do not know what underlying abilities or dispositions changed in Tryon’s two strains of rats to produce their difference in maze performance, but the change was apparently not one of general learning ability For example, in early development, genes that govern the building of an eye become methylated and “turn off” in all tissues except those that will eventually develop into eyes. However, DNA methylation can also be influenced by experience; indeed, it seems to be the primary mechanism by which experience modifies gene action and thus behavior. behavior and be transmitted to future generations, all without any changes in the genes themselves However, research with nonhuman animals suggests that the way the human brain “learns” to react to stress through the production and processing of the hormone cortisol is likely governed by epigenetic mechanisms (Moore, 2015). 基因遗传需要代际，表观遗传只需要经验习得，个体一生中就可以发生变化，适应环境更高效更快 In the first chapter of The Origin of Species, Darwin (1859/1963) used the term artificial selection to refer to human-controlled selective breeding, and he reminded readers of the enormously diverse varieties of plants and animals that had been produced through that procedure. 人类驯化动物数万年，只有到达尔文才发现自然界也存在"驯化" Selective breeding in nature, which Darwin labeled natural selection, is dictated not by the needs and whims of humans but by the obstacles to survival and reproduction that are imposed by the natural environment. 人类的驯化是"想要，自然界的驯化是"不要。前者有目的塑造（选择，后者无目的的排除（不选 First, more individuals are born in a generation than will survive. 总会出现冗余的个体，为了让基因变化更丰富，容错率提高，不至于因为某个基因而绝种。代价就是会有很多不适应的基因突变或遗传病。纳粹的意识形态看上去是在纯化优良基因，但真正的适应是多样性而非最优基因的独大。任何遗传序列都不可能完美。一旦人类只剩下单个最优的基因序列，很可能一个意想不到的危机就会让所有人类灭绝。缺乏容错率。 evolution is defined as changes in gene frequency between populations of individuals, with changes in genes being the “cause” of forming new species. However, animals inherit more than just their genes. They inherit chemicals within the egg and some cellular machinery, as well as a species-typical environment (a womb in mammals, for example). 进化只是基因，遗传是基因+内环境（子宫和受精卵内） Even Darwin did not reject that idea, but he added to it the concepts of random variation and natural selection. In the long run of evolution, mutation is the ultimate source of all genetic variation. Environmental change spurs evolution not by causing the appropriate mutations to occur but by promoting natural selection. 同一环境中进化靠突变（变得更好），环境变化或迁徙时的进化靠环境挑战的修剪（排除差的）。前者慢后者快。 When the conditions of life change, what was previously a useful characteristic may become harmful, and vice versa. For example, some may think of humans as the “most evolved” creatures, with chimpanzees next and amoebas way down on the list. But evolution has no set route or planned end.   If natural selection promotes a self-interested struggle among individuals, for example, then selfishness is right. Such equations are logically indefensible because nature itself is neither moral nor immoral except as judged so by us. This is referred to as the naturalistic fallacy, and it is precisely that, a fallacy. The amoeba has no more chance of evolving to become like us than we have of evolving to become like it. Not every detail of every trait serves a useful function, and some traits that were once functional may not be so today. This reflex may well be useful today in the development of the infant’s ability to hold and manipulate objects, but that does not explain why prematurely born infants grasp so strongly that they can support their own weight, why they grasp with their toes as well as their hands, and why the best stimulus for eliciting this reflex is a clump of hair (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1975). Such variation, due to chance alone without selection, is called genetic drift. The different shapes might be a result of mutations that didn’t matter and therefore were never weeded out by natural selection. Sometimes guilt can be crippling; our capacity for guilt can be exploited by others for their ends at our expense. The best that natural selection could do was to develop a guilt mechanism that is triggered by certain general conditions. It could not build a mechanism capable of distinguishing every possible condition from every other one and triggering guilt only when it is useful. To this day, scientists are unsure which of these theories is correct. The mistake here is assuming or implying that genes influence behavior directly, rather than through the indirect means of working with the environment to build or modify biological structures that then, in interplay with the environment, produce behavior. 基因和行为中间有两层过渡，蛋白质表达和内外环境 is unavoidable because it is controlled by our genes 基因只决定倾向，但是否表达还取决于主观控制能力和环境。和前面的natural fallacy有点像。自然的就是好的，基因的就是无法避免的。 Raised eyebrows are also a component of the emotional expression of surprise (look at Figure 3.13 again), so the eyebrow flash with its accompanying smile might be interpreted as a nonverbal way of saying, “What a happy surprise to see you!”  young birds learn to sing the dialect that they hear (Nelson et al., 2004). Flying has arisen separately in three taxonomic groups: birds, some insects (such as butterflies), and some mammals (bats). species must study species in which the relevant behavior is homologous, not analogous, to that in humans. Homologies are also useful for inferring the pathways along which species-typical behaviors evolved. 问题是知道了进化路线有什么用 FIGURE 3.18 Cells built by honeybees and bumblebees Honeybees build hives with hexagonally shaped cells (a), the optimal shape for storing large amounts of honey and larvae using the least amount of precious wax. How do studies of homologies between humans and other primates support the view that the human greeting smile and the human happy smile have separate evolutionary origins? homology不仅可以让动物作为研究被试的替代，还可以从别的物种身上发现类似的行为，研究该行为的原始功能和现代社会中的功能的异同，作为行为分类的证据（真假笑容的不同功能）， In one study, for example, 10-month-old infants smiled with eyes and mouth when approached by their mother (presumably a happy situation) but smiled with mouth alone when approached by a stranger (a possibly tense situation) (Fox & Davidson, 1988). People smile in two quite different contexts: (1) when genuinely happy and (2) when wishing to show another person that they are favorably disposed toward that person. The latter situation need not entail happiness at all; in fact, people are especially likely to smile at others in potentially tense circumstances, apparently as a means of reducing the tension . It involves the same facial muscles as are involved in human laughter (Parr et al., 2007), and in chimpanzees it is often accompanied by a vocalized ahh ahh ahh, which sounds like a throaty human laugh. This display apparently originated as a means for young primates to signal to each other that their aggressive-like behavior is not to be taken seriously; nobody will really get hurt. Interestingly, in human children, laughter occurs during playful fighting and chasing more reliably than during any other form of play (Blurton-Jones, 1967). Thus, our laughter is not only similar in form to the relaxed open-mouth display of other primates but also, at least in some cases, seems to serve a similar function If different species have independently evolved a particular behavioral trait, then comparing the species may reveal commonalities of habitat and lifestyle that are clues to the distal function of that trait. homology的作用有三个，研究替代，溯源和功能，analogy的功能只有功能（对于适应环境。前者相似的功能比较高级，后者偏基本。 Based on Trivers’s theory of parental investment, why does high investment by the female lead to (a) polygyny, (b) large size of males, and (c) high selectivity in the female’s choice of mate? 一夫多妻，父系，男权，男性体格，竞争，女性挑剔，投资后代 This leads to a selective advantage for increased size and strength in males, up to some maximum beyond which the size advantage in obtaining mates is outweighed by disadvantages, such as difficulty in finding sufficient food to support the large size. Equal parental investment is most likely to come about when conditions make it impossible for a single adult to raise the young but quite possible for two to raise them. One parent alone cannot simultaneously guard the nest and leave it to get food, but two together can. Among mammals, monogamy has arisen in some species that are like birds in the sense that their young must be given food other than milk, of a type that the male can provide. The best-known examples are certain carnivores, including foxes and results in genetically superior young, and copulation with any additional male increases the chance that all her eggs will be fertilized by viable sperm (Zeh & Zeh, 2001). For the male, evolutionary advantage rests in driving neighboring males away from his own mate whenever possible and in copulating with neighboring females whenever possible.  但其实这种行为并没有带来更多后代，因为不论如何出轨，雌性繁育周期是不变的，整个族群在确定时间内的总后代量也是固定的，因此出轨和单偶生育的后代数量平均对雌雄来说都是一样的。真正改变了的是每个窝内的基因多样性。（虽然我替别人养儿子，但别人也替我养儿子，我的儿子分布在世界各地比起只呆在一个窝里要更容易延续） social monogamy (the faithful pairing of female and male for raising young) does not necessarily imply sexual monogamy  relative harmony, without too much fighting over who mates with whom. A related advantage, from the female’s perspective, is paternity confusion (Hrdy, 2009). Among many species of primates, males kill young that are not their own, and such behavior has been observed in chimpanzees when a female migrates into a troop bringing with her an infant that was sired Here a male has mounted a female in a face-to-face position—a position long thought to be unique to humans. But bonobo sex occurs in all possible partner combinations (homosexual as well as heterosexual) and essentially all imaginable positions. In no culture are human beings as sexually promiscuous as are our closest ape relatives, the chimpanzees and bonobos. In every culture, people form long-term mating bonds, which are usually legitimized through some sort of culturally recognized marriage contract. Anthropologists have found that the great majority of non-Western cultures, where Western influence has not made polygyny illegal, practice a mixture of monogamy and polygyny In fact, among bonobos sex appears to be more a reducer of aggression than a cause of it (Parish & de Waal, 2000; Wrangham, 1993). Unlike any other apes, female bonobos copulate at all times of their reproductive cycle, not just near the time of ovulation. In addition to their frequent heterosexual activity, bonobos of the same sex often rub their genitals together, and genital stimulation of all types occurs most often following conflict and in situations that could potentially elicit conflict, such as when a favorite food is discovered (Hohmann & Fruth, 2000). Field studies suggest that bonobos are the most peaceful of primates and that their frequent promiscuous sexual activity helps keep them that way Taking both direct and indirect care into account, humans are a species in which fathers typically lag somewhat behind mothers, but not greatly behind them, in degree of parental investment. This, in line with Trivers’s parental investment theory, is consistent with our being a primarily monogamous but moderately polygynous species. The moderate size difference between men and women is also consistent with this conclusion (Dewsbury, 1988). Humans’ immune system was between those of the polygynous, harem-based gorilla and the monogamous gibbon (a lesser ape).  Although love and jealousy tend to promote bonding, there is another product of evolution—lust—that tends to motivate both men and women to engage surreptitiously in sex outside of such bonds. In this sense we are like those socially monogamous birds that are sexually unfaithful. When it does happen, usually two brothers will share a wife. In this way, a man can be assured that any child the woman conceives shares at least some of his genes: 50% if he’s the father and 25% if his brother is the father. When one of the brothers acquires enough resources to support a wife on his own, he often does so, leaving the polyandrous family  Female primates are not unaggressive, but their aggression is typically aimed directly toward obtaining resources and defending their young. The male at battle risks just himself; in the calculus of evolution, his life isn’t worth anything unless he can get a female to mate with him. In these examples, the helpers can apparently distinguish kin from nonkin, and this ability allows them to direct help selectively to kin (Pfennig & Sherman, 1995; Silk, 2002). 分辨亲属关系的能力其实对个体无利益，只是对基因本身有利（群体），但这种能力促进了合作，间接对个体生存产生帮助。 intelligence allow us to extend our concept of kinship to all humanity. Humans also help others, including others who may never be able to reciprocate, in order to develop a good reputation in the community at large, and those with a good reputation are valued and helped by the community (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003). The reasons we give ourselves for what we do are an aspect of the proximate causation of our behavior. We are often no more aware of the distal functions of our actions than the cabbage butterfly is of why it is irresistibly drawn to plants of the cabbage family as the only proper place to lay its eggs. Noticing that the blood vessels leading into it are larger than those entering other organs, they suggested that the brain’s main function was to cool the blood. Don’t confuse the terms neuron and nerve. Note also that despite their names, the central and peripheral nervous systems are not two separate systems, but are parts of an integrated whole. The human nervous system contains a few million sensory and motor neurons and roughly 86 billion interneurons. Although each action potential is all or none, a neuron can convey varying degrees of intensity in its message by varying its rate of producing action potentials. A given neuron might fire off action potentials at a rate anywhere from less than 1 per second to as many as 1,000 per second. By varying its rate of action potentials, a neuron varies the strength of its effect on other neurons or muscle cells. The myelin sheath is not part of the neuron; it is formed of separate cells that are wrapped tightly around the axon. Because channels in the membrane that are permeable to potassium remain open, some potassium ions diffuse out, resulting in a surplus of positive charges outside the cell and a deficit of positive charges inside. For this reason, the resting membrane has an electrical charge across it of about 70 mV,  When an axon branches, the action potential follows each branch and thus reaches each of the possibly thousands of axon terminals. Large-diameter axons present less resistance to the spread of electric currents and therefore conduct action potentials faster than thin ones. Another feature that speeds up the rate of conduction in many axons is the myelin sheath ( Neurons in the sensory system are the first to be myelinated, with most sensory structures being completely myelinated before a child’s first birthday. This is followed by myelination of neurons in the motor area, which is nearly complete within the second year of life. The last areas to become fully myelinated are the associative areas in the frontal cortex—the “thinking” area of the brain—which are not completely myelinated until early adulthood ( Thus, the rate of action potentials in the postsynaptic neuron’s axon depends on the net effect of the depolarizing and hyperpolarizing influences from excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Synapse formation is most rapid in the months immediately following birth, but the peak of synapse formation varies for different parts of the brain. FIGURE 4.10 Age differences in synapse production and pruning in the prefrontal and visual cortex The number of synapses show sharp increases early in development but then experience “pruning,” as the brain gets sculpted to its eventual adult form. 细胞和突触增长早的区域修剪也早 Cell death and synaptic pruning occur at different rates for different parts of the brain. Although brains do grow larger with age, this increase is due primarily to the increasing size of individual neurons and myelination of axons, not to the generation of new neurons (Lenroot & Giedd, 2007). Furthermore, it’s not just synapses that are lost; neurons themselves also die in a process, known as selective cell death, or apoptosis [a-pəp-tō ́-səs], which begins before birth and continues well into the teen years (Spear, 2007; Stiles et al., 2015). Although TMS is usually used to study the effects of temporary inactivation of a brain area, it can also be used to study the effects of temporary activation. A somewhat similar technique called transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) involves directing weak electrical currents to specific areas of the brain; it has been found to alter perceptual, cognitive, and motor functioning. To stimulate neurons electrically, a wire electrode is lowered into the brain using the same surgical method as that used to produce a lesion. 同样的方法三种操作，损毁，刺激，记录 To stimulate neurons chemically, a cannula is permanently implanted in the brain, and shortly before behavioral testing a tiny amount of a neurotransmitter substance or other chemical known to activate neurons is injected through it. 电和化学都可以损毁和刺激， the lesions are made in deep, primitive areas of the animal’s brain, whose functions are similar for all mammals, including humans.  SECTION REVIEW 记录：细胞层面，电极；整体生物电，EEG；整体新陈代谢，PET，fMRI。刺激：小块区域的电或化学，TMS（人类）。损毁：不可逆（动物）：电或化学；TMS可逆人类。 The flow of information in this hierarchy is primarily from bottom (sensory receptors) to top (perceptual centers in the brain). The other hierarchy, the motor- control hierarchy, is involved in control of movement. The flow of information here is primarily from top to bottom. The 86 billion neurons of the central nervous system are all involved in controlling the 2 or 3 million motor neurons, which in turn control behavior. Whereas skeletal motor neurons initiate activity in the skeletal muscles, autonomic motor neurons typically modulate (modify) rather than initiate activity in the visceral muscles. Skeletal muscles are completely inactive in the absence of neural input, but visceral muscles have built-in, nonneural mechanisms for generating activity.  In some animals (but not in humans), the pattern generators become active when released from the brain’s inhibitory control over them, which accounts for the wing flapping and running motions of the headless chicken. Normally, in intact animals, pattern generators are controlled by neurons descending from the brain. They can be either inhibited, producing a motionless animal, or activated to varying degrees, producing varying rates of locomotion. The spinal cord is the site of entry of spinal nerves, and the brainstem is the site of entry of most (10 of the 12 pairs) of the cranial nerves. The medulla and pons organize reflexes that are more complex and sustained than spinal reflexes. An animal (such as a cat) whose central nervous system is cut completely through just above the brainstem, referred to as a brainstem animal, is a fascinating creature to watch. It can produce most of the species-typical behaviors that a normal animal can produce (Klemm, 1990). It can walk, run, jump, climb, groom itself, attack, produce copulatory movements, chew, swallow, and so on. Unlike a normal animal, however, it makes these responses only when provoked by immediate stimuli; it does not behave in either a spontaneous or a goal- directed manner. Both structures are specialized to use sensory information to guide movements, but they apparently use that information in different ways. The basal ganglia appear to use sensory information primarily in a feedback manner. In other words, sensory input pertaining to an ongoing movement (such as the sight of how the hand is moving) feeds back into the basal ganglia and is used to adjust the movement as it progresses. The cerebellum, in contrast, uses sensory information primarily in a feed- forward manner (Ohyama et al., 2003). That is, it uses sensory information to program the appropriate force and timing of a movement before the movement is initiated. That is why the cerebellum is especially crucial for movements that occur too rapidly to be modified once they are in progress. 小脑是前馈，基底节是反馈。小脑编码的动作熟练而刻板，基底节的动作精细较慢需要灵活性。 Damage to the cerebellum is especially associated with loss in ability to behave in ways that require rapid, well-timed sequences of muscle movements, such as pitching a baseball, leaping over a hurdle, playing a musical instrument, or typing a series of words at a computer (Bagnall et al., 2013). In contrast, damage to the basal ganglia is especially associated with loss of ability to coordinate slower, deliberate movements, such as reaching out to pick up an object (Mink, 2013). 小脑是动作技能，基底节是日常动作。 The researchers implanted electrodes deep into the central nuclei of the patient’s thalamus. In response to prolonged weak electrical stimulation through those electrodes, the patient would open his eyes, respond to simple requests, recognize and respond to family members, chew and swallow food placed in his mouth, and could begin a course of physical therapy that had previously been impossible. The limbic system is believed to have evolved originally as a system for the sophisticated analysis of input from the sense of smell (Thompson, 1985), and its connections with the nose remain strong. In addition, it is intimately connected to the basal ganglia, and that connection is believed to help translate emotions and drives into actions. The hypothalamus is not technically part of the limbic system, but is intimately connected to all the structures of that system (see Figure 4.18). This it accomplishes by (a) influencing the activity of the autonomic nervous system, (b) controlling the release of certain hormones (to be described later), and (c) affecting certain drive states, such as hunger and thirst. In addition, through its connections with the limbic system, the hypothalamus helps to regulate emotional states, such as fear and anger. The hypothalamus plays a major role in the regulation of basic drives important to survival, including the so-called “four Fs”: fighting, fleeing, feeding, and (to put it politely) fornicating. 下丘脑跟脑干其实有点像 Notice that both subcortical and cortical structures exist at each of the top three levels of the hierarchy. Although this portrayal does not show all the known pathways, However, there is a possible danger in this portrayal: It can seduce us into believing we know more than we actually do. At the third level, the motor program is conveyed through two pathways for further refinement. The program for larger movements, such as walking toward the cherries, is sent directly down to a set of motor nuclei in the upper part of the brainstem. The program for delicate movements, such as those needed for removing the stems and eating the fruit while avoiding swallowing the pits, is conveyed to the motor cortex, which, in turn, sends its output down to the brainstem and spinal cord. It is important to remember that such statements don’t address the far more difficult question of how the association cortex makes decisions or how various other structures develop and refine programs for action. the hard problem Today we know that the circulatory system does indeed play a vital communicative role in the body, though not the one envisioned by the ancients. Some effects of hormones are long term or irreversible, and some of these occur before birth. In general, conditions that would seem to promote self-confidence tend to increase a man’s production of testosterone. For example, winning a game, even a sedentary game like chess, or a contrived speed-based button-pressing competition, commonly results in increased blood levels of testosterone in men, detectable within minutes of the victory (Archer, 2006; Gladue et al., 1989), and winning such contests, relative to losing them, is also associated with increased sexual interest in women (Gorelik & Bjorklund, 2015). Apparently, in women, hormonal activation of the drive has been taken over largely by adrenal androgens. In clinical studies, women whose ovaries have been removed do not generally report a decline in sexual drive, but most women whose adrenals have been removed do report such a decline; and long-term treatment with These hormones are also produced at lower levels by the adrenal glands, in females as well as in males. A number of studies, using various measures, indicate that women are significantly more motivated sexually at the time in their cycle when they are fertile than at other times. In women and some other female primates, adrenal androgens promote sexual receptivity throughout the ovarian cycle. 也许越丰富的资源可以支持不限时的生育，资源有限的物种必须得保证后代出生在食物丰富的季节，因此必须有繁殖期限制？ But Gazzaniga (1967, 1998) showed that under special test conditions, in which information is provided to just one hemisphere or the other, patients with split brains behave as though they have two separate minds with different abilities. 心理学家的实验设计和神经科学的解剖原理结合才能产生有价值的发现。这是个典型。 Such symmetry breaks down, however, in the association areas. The fascinating result was that the person could reliably identify with the left hand (but not with the right) the same object that he or she had just vocally denied having seen (Gazzaniga, 1967). 意识的定义被这个实验动摇了。也许该分为动作意识和言语报告意识。左脑意识与右脑意识。分离的意识与整合的意识。胼胝体本身也许就是意识的一部分，作为整体意识的必要条件。 When asked to arrange puzzle pieces to match a particular design or to copy three-dimensional pictures, each subject performed far better with the left hand (controlled by the right hemisphere) than with the right hand (controlled by the left hemisphere), even though all of the subjects were right-handed (see Figure 4.30). 注意这里的左手思考而非左手操作。这里的任务是从皮层的高级分析区传到左手的，而不是基底节和小脑。如果单纯比熟练度肯定还是右手。 Additional research, with people whose corpus callosum has not been cut, has shown that about 4% of right- handed individuals and 15% of left-handed individuals have their speech centers located in the right hemisphere rather than the left (Rasmussen & Milner, 1977). 利手一部分决定单侧化，但还有一部分单侧化原因无法用利手解释，百分之八十五的左利手和百分之四的右利手。 FIGURE 4.30 Evidence for right-hemisphere superiority in spatial representation Although the split-brain patient who produced these drawings was right-handed, he could copy geometric figures much better with his left hand (controlled by his right hemisphere) than with his right hand. 这就是个很好的操作与思考分离的实验。右手线段更平滑熟练但没画下几何体的本质特征。高级分析区和低级操作运动系统的分离。 Motor centers that control movements of the larger muscles, such as those of the legs and arms (but not the fingers) lie in the lower, undivided parts, and some sensory information also passes from one hemisphere to the other by way of those lower routes (Reuter-Lorenz & Miller, 1998). The intact connections also apparently allow each hemisphere to inhibit the motor output of the other, so the more competent hemisphere can take control of any given task  In some instances, especially shortly after the surgery, conflict does occur. One man described a situation in which, while he was dressing in the morning, his right hand was trying to pull his pants on while his left hand was trying to pull them back off (Gazzaniga, 1970); apparently, his right hemisphere wanted to go back to bed. But such conflicts are rare, and when they do occur, the left hemisphere (right hand) usually wins. 右脑倾向偷懒，左脑执行控制力较强。病人把普通人的内心冲突外化，只能用行为表现纠结但无法意识到，正常人的胼胝体可以有意识地解决冲突统一一个行为表现。 be felt with both hands, the two hemispheres can receive the same or similar information through their separate channels. Finally, each hemisphere apparently learns to communicate indirectly with the other by observing and responding to the behavior that the other produces, a process that Gazzaniga (1967) labeled cross-cueing.  把本该在中枢解决的问题绕过受损的中枢胼胝体，走了外周的通路。但问题是不论是感觉还是运动都只在一侧，运动的肌肉反馈也没法传到对侧。也许会牵动一些对侧的感觉肌肉。 Such observations led Gazzaniga (2000) to posit that one of the natural functions of the left hemisphere is to interpret, or try to make logical sense of, everything that the person does. You might think of this left- hemisphere interpreter as analogous to the public relations department of a business or government. Its role is to tell stories, both to the self and to others, designed to make sense of the seemingly contradictory and irrational things that the person does. The idea of such an interpreter in the human brain or mind is by no means new. It was the centerpiece of a theory of consciousness proposed by Sigmund Freud (1912/1932) more than 100 years ago. According to Freud, we do things because unconscious decision-making processes in our mind make us do them. But one part of our mind observes what we do and tells a running story about it; that story constitutes our conscious understanding of our actions and the reasons for them. The split-brain studies indicate that the neural mechanism for generating such stories is located in the left hemisphere and is intimately connected with the brain areas that generate speech. 但问题是，interpret 的前提是掌握话语权，会使用语言符号。右脑只是不会使用语言表达，但无法证明右脑是否会以非言语的方式interpret（也许设计足够巧妙的实验可以解决这个问题）。也许右脑也产生了属于他的解释，只不过无法通过言语通向意识高度。需要设计左手操作的行为实验。 In sum, studies of people with damage to Broca’s area suggest that neurons in and around this area are crucial for at least two seemingly distinct language functions: (1) articulating words and sentences in a fluent manner and (2) transforming grammatically complex sentences that are heard into simpler ones in order to extract the meaning. 是否可以说，broca主管的是语言中非联结性习得的部分，无法套入符号~物体这一对应关系的词，无法从记忆中提取，定义没有现实中具体对应物。连词冠词语法都是如此。它们是规则学习而非联结性学习。所以broca在更抽象的额叶，wernicke是后部与记忆和感知相关的颞顶叶。动物的wernicke学习可以做到，但由于额叶不发达broca的学习对动物很难。 Its location near the primary auditory area is also consistent with the role of translating sounds into meaningful words (Geschwind, 1972). 把声音转化成意义，也可以说是在记忆中搜索音义的联结 Split-brain patients enable researchers to study the functioning of each hemisphere independent of the other. 有一个问题，俩半球各自的作用不一定等于他们合作时各自的作用。他们各自功能作用只和肯定也不是简单相加。裂脑人的半球功能能否推广到正常人还未知。 Apparently, the brain reorganization resulted not from the skin stimulation per se, but rather from the monkeys’ use of that stimulation to guide their behavior. 学习或神经活性增强需要有学习意图（这里是奖赏），也就是需要有意注意。这个实验也可以用来批判被动接受的学习 For example, regions of the occipital lobe that in sighted people are involved in the visual analysis of three- dimensional space become devoted, in the blind, to the task of identifying the locations from which sounds are coming (Gougoux et al., 2005). In Braille readers, large parts of the occipital cortex become devoted to analyzing tactile input from the fingers in the finely graded way needed to read Braille (Pascual-Leone et al., 2005). Blind people also commonly develop superior verbal memory to compensate for their inability to look up information easily or to find objects by looking. Alvaro Pascual-Leone and his colleagues (2005) found that at least some of these brain changes began to occur in sighted people who had been blindfolded for just 5 days. When the blindfolds were removed, the changes quickly reversed themselves. Moreover, those blind subjects who scored best on the memory test showed the most activity in the occipital cortex. Various bird species that hide seeds have been found to remember spatial locations better than do species that don’t hide seeds and to have an enlargement of an area of When caged chickadees are allowed to hide and retrieve seeds, their hippocampi grow, and when they are then prevented from hiding and retrieving seeds for a period of time, their hippocampi shrink again. The presynaptic terminal becomes larger, able to release more transmitter substance than it could before, and the postsynaptic membrane develops more conventional receptor sites than it had before. Sets of neurons that behave like this have been found in many parts of the mammalian brain, including various areas of the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, the cerebellum, and the amygdala—all of which are known to be involved in various kinds of learning (Byrne, 2008). 基本可以说所有生物的所有脑区都有ltp。生物或者大脑的本质就是学习。 The LTP-inhibited mice failed to learn such fear. They responded to the shock as did normal mice, but, unlike normal mice, they did not subsequently show fear responses to the tone ( Remarkably, but just as predicted, the Doogie mice also showed better memory than the unaltered mice in a series of three widely different tests: maze learning, classical conditioning of a fear response, and object recognition (see Figure 4.34). In each case, the altered mice behaved similarly to the unaltered mice during the learning experience but showed significantly better memory when tested a day or more later (Tsien, 2000). More recently, Tsien and his colleagues showed that such genetic modification can also prevent the decline in memory that normally occurs in aged mice (Cao et al., 2007). Mice that were genetically altered to produce enhanced LTP explored the new object (in this case, the one on the right) more than the old one even when several days had elapsed since the initial session. If a simple genetic change can improve memory by increasing LTP, then why hasn’t evolution already produced that change through natural selection? Perhaps LTP beyond a certain level, or even memory beyond a certain level, is maladaptive in the conditions of everyday life. mental life has both fast- and slow-moving components. Sensations, perceptions, thoughts, and muscle movements flit through our consciousness and behavior at speeds measured in milliseconds. But slower changes, measurable in minutes or hours, modulate and help to direct these rapid changes. These slower-changing components of the mind are called behavioral states; they include variations in motivation, emotion, and level of arousal Drives in psychology are considered hypothetical constructs because they can’t be directly observed. A more precise label for the topic at hand is motivational state, or drive. Drives and incentives complement one another in the control of behavior; if one is weak, the other must be strong to motivate the goal-directed action. Drives and incentives not only complement each other but also influence each other’s strength. A strong drive can enhance the attractiveness (incentive value) of a particular object: For example, if the caloric (energy) content of its food is increased or decreased, an animal will compensate by eating less or more of it, keeping the daily intake of calories relatively constant. The hospital staff would not yield to his demands for salt, and he died within a few days. An autopsy revealed that his adrenal glands were deficient; only then did D. W.’s doctors realize that his salt craving came from physiological need. His strong drive for salt and his ability to manipulate his parents into supplying it, even though they were unaware that he needed it, had kept D. W. alive for more than 2 years after the onset of the adrenal deficiency— powerful evidence for “the wisdom of the body.” In humans, these drives can be as powerful as the regulatory, safety, and reproductive drives. he most obvious safety drive is fear, which motivates individuals to flee from danger. Another is anger, which is manifested when fighting (or threatening to fight) rather than flight is needed to ensure one’s safety. We will argue later in this chapter that sleep 这里的安全驱力显然已经包含情绪。只有safty和regulatory是关乎个体生死的。其它的要么是关乎群体要么是成长性而非生死攸关。 When other drives are not too pressing, the drives for play and exploration come to the fore. When they are at a peak, these drives can be extraordinarily powerful. Animals (including people) will risk their lives to mate and to protect their offspring. As discussed in Chapter 3, sexual jealousy, including the anger associated with it,  繁殖驱力不影响个体存亡但关乎群体 Educativedrives.Theseconsistprimarilyofthedrivestoplayandto explore (curiosity). 信息获取。不仅是活下去，而是活得更好，提高质量的信息。显然这个驱力取决于智力水平和基本生活保障即资源丰富度。 At present, these questions are much debated, and there is no firm answer. Our own view is that the pursuits of art, music, and literature are natural extensions of our drives for play and exploration. These pursuits can exercise perceptual and motor skills, imagination, and creative thinking in ways that may be useful in future real-life situations and can also provide us with ideas for governing our own lives. Like other playful and exploratory activities, these pursuits help our minds to grow during periods when there are no more pressing survival needs that must be fulfilled. Developing skills in art, music, and storytelling may also enhance one’s status in a social group and impress members of the opposite sex, which would have had survival value for our ancestors. educative drive的延伸。 Of course, some things that people become motivated for are truly harmful. Drug addictions and compulsive gambling  To suggest that art, music, and literature may be vicarious means of satisfying other drives rather than drives in and of themselves is not to diminish them. These pursuits enrich our lives immensely; they extend us beyond evolution’s narrow dictates of mere survival and reproduction. A somewhat different (but not incompatible) view, presented by Steven Pinker (1997), is that art, music, and literature appeal to us not because we have special drives for them but because they tap into many of our already existing drives and proclivities, which evolved for other purposes. 其实还是一样的思路。前文把审美纳入educative，pinker把审美纳入别的drive，有点类似弗洛伊德对艺术的看法，替代满足。同时也能拓宽经验。合理的想象力也可以是经验来源。 For a set of neurons to serve as a central drive system, first, it must receive and integrate the various signals that can raise or lower the drive state. 首先要感知体内平衡状态，其次要能发起行动。 It is centered at the base of the brain, just above the brainstem, and is strongly interconnected with higher areas of the brain. It also has direct connections to nerves that carry input from, and autonomic motor output to, the body’s internal organs. It has many capillaries and is more sensitive to hormones and other substances carried by the blood than are other brain areas. Finally, through its connections to the pituitary gland, it controls the release of many hormones (as described in Chapter 4). Thus, the hypothalamus has all the inputs and outputs that central drive systems would be expected to have.  Reinforcement refers to the effects that rewards have in promoting learning. As discussed in Chapter 8 (in the section on operant conditioning), animals and people learn to attend to stimuli that signal the availability of rewards, and they learn to make responses that bring rewards in the presence of those stimuli. reward分为三种，reward之前是wanting，之中感受到liking，之后习得了reinforcement。wanting最接近drive的概念，只有wanting包括目标和行动。 This is the component of reward that links most clearly to the concept of motivation. To want something is to be motivated to get it. Whereas pleasure occurs when a reward is received, wanting occurs before it is received. Wanting is typically measured by assessing the amount of effort an individual will exert, or the amount of pain the individual will bear, in order to obtain the reward. Usually objects that are wanted are also liked, but it is possible to separate the two. FIGURE 5.4 A reward pathway in the brain The medial forebrain bundle is a neural tract consisting of neurons whose cell bodies are in nuclei in the midbrain and whose synaptic terminals are in the nucleus accumbens of the basal ganglia. They also continue to exhibit the facial “liking” expression (depicted in Figure 5.2) when they taste a sugar solution. However, they do not continue to seek out or work for rewards that are not immediately present ( This pattern is consistent with the idea that dopamine helps motivate the animal to obtain the reward (promotes “wanting”) but is not essential for the pleasure (“liking”) associated with obtaining the reward. rate at which rats and other animals will work for food, but do not increase the facial “liking” response to sucrose or the animal’s consumption of food that is immediately available The release of dopamine into the nucleus accumbens appears to be crucial not just for motivating animals to work for rewards, but also for their ability to learn to use cues to predict when and where rewards are available. One line of evidence for this is the observation that dopamine release promotes long- term potentiation (LTP) of neural connections within the nucleus accumbens  reinforce需要wanting即多巴胺的参与，like（内啡肽）对行为习得似乎无用，因为后者无法驱动行为，也无法产生像前者那样的LTP对记忆的塑造 accumbens, they increase the facial “liking” reaction to sucrose (Smith & Berridge, 2007) and also increase the amount of immediately present food that an animal will eat  Endorphins are chemicals created within the body that have effects similar to those of morphine and other opiate drugs such as opium and heroin; they are best known for their role in inhibiting the sense of pain. Endorphin is short for “endogenous morphine-like substance Some of the neurons of the medial forebrain bundle that terminate in the nucleus accumbens release not dopamine but a different transmitter, one that is in the endorphin family. 内啡肽和多巴胺共享同一条通路 The learning component of reward is closely related to the “wanting” component. The animal eats and apparently enjoys the food, but no dopamine release accompanies that behavior. This pattern of dopamine release is consistent with the idea that dopamine is involved in new learning (Schultz, 1998). 但不像上个LTP的实验，这个实验无法证明多巴胺对学习的作用，它可能只是个习得的后果而不是前因，只能说能通过多巴胺的改变来证明是否发生了学习，是个学习结果的indicator，而不能说多巴胺造成了学习。 Dopamine release now occurs in response to the signal preceding reward (the light) because now the animal’s interest lies in learning how to predict when the signal will appear or how to make it appear. 或者可以这样说，因为wanting系统可以停止了，联结是固定的，它不用再发起行动了，多巴胺是控制wanting的行动过程。接下来它只需要等着就行。也许再加一个或多个操作性前提反应的话，也许它的多巴胺会一直分泌直到最后一个操作行为完成，而不是第一个操作行为或线索出现后就停止分泌。所以多巴胺分泌可能不在于兴趣的转变而在于是否还需要驱动行为。考虑到多巴胺在帕金森中的作用。不知道是否有类似的实验研究过。待查文献。 The craving itself, rather than any expected pleasure, becomes the main reason for taking the drug. Drug taking becomes a compulsion rather than something that one freely chooses to do for pleasure. (Other reasons why drug addicts continue to take drugs, having to do with conditioned counteractive responses,  any cues that are present in the environment and the feelings and behaviors of wanting and taking the drug 线索大概包括两种，一是直接与成瘾行为相关的线索比如获取药物的行为或方法，二是偶然在用药时的经验比如地点。 but will stop self-administering the drugs if the nucleus accumbens is destroyed or chemically blocked  成瘾的两个条件，通路解剖结构的完整和引起多巴胺和内啡肽的药物 Not only do they produce an immediate sense of euphoria, but even more significant for the problem of addiction, they strongly activate the dopamine-receiving neurons in the nucleus accumbens that are responsible for promoting reward-based learning. 不止是单纯的快感，因为多巴胺通路的激活会直接导致行为的产生。单纯的快感学习（一般的操作性条件反射）可以被皮层控制（正常情况下的学习多巴胺不会分泌过多），但直接大量刺激多巴胺通路产生的行为偏强迫性，难被意识控制，自动激活行为。 The loss in liking occurs, presumably, because of drug-induced changes in the brain that reduce the endorphin-mediated pleasure response. 也许like的机制更复杂，可能包括了皮层的思考结果。理性显然会拒绝承认成瘾行为的正当性，因此like可能受到前额叶的影响而不只是低级通路。待查文献。 ormal rewards, such as food, activate these neurons only when the reward is unexpected; but cocaine and other addictive drugs, through their direct chemical effects, activate these neurons every time the drug is taken. A greater number of DA neurons, however, were excited by salience—the increased likelihood of any reinforcement, independent of whether it was a reward or a punishment, and especially when it was unpredictable。cognitive neuroscience的decision making那一章。多巴胺神经元有两种，一是奖赏二是新异性，也就是只要是意外事件不论是奖赏还是惩罚不论是量的增多还是减少，都会激活这部分神经元。但是如果一直不变的奖赏是不会激活。所以正常情况下的奖赏不会过多激活多巴胺通路。但直接刺激的药物就不一样了。 Consciously, the person may know that the game pays off in a way that is unpredictable and uninfluenced by anything that he or she does, but the brain’s primitive reward system nevertheless behaves as if it is constantly trying to learn how to predict and produce the reward. 总结下多巴胺的几个功能，1，奖赏时或意外奖赏时活跃，wanting。2，学习，LTP。3，运动和行为。在赌博过程中，前两个功能结合在一起发挥作用。学习就是为了得到奖赏，学习本身成了奖赏的cue“只要我找到规律一定就能赢钱”也许赌博者潜意识里是这样想的。人类大脑就是为了在混乱的世界里找到能创造有利于繁衍的结果的规律而进化出来的，寻找越多的规律可以囤积越多的资源而不是被动等待。所以即使意识明白赌博机制是完全随机的，潜意识里还是在被基因控制着去寻找奖赏背后的规律性。多巴胺每检测到一次意外事件就是在提醒个体去发现意外背后的规律。这也能把多巴胺看似不相关的功能，奖赏的意外和学习功能结合起来。而且正常情况下，自然界里生存，资源的获得确实是都有规律可循，但在人为创造的赌场，打破了自然界的规律性，瞬间被随机性淹没，而如此大量的随机性奖赏在自然界是不可能出现的（因为自然定律，而且自然界本来也没现代社会如此大量的资源，更没有货币这种可以兑换任何资源的通货），人脑不是为这种情况设计的。就像甜食一样，赌博也是利用了人脑进化上的滞后性bug。 Because the payoff is never predictable, every instance of payoff results in a new burst of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens, no matter how many times the person plays. 时间和奖赏剂量都不可预测。如前所述，某类DA神经元只对新异性放电。 The release of dopamine into the nucleus accumbens is associated with wanting; the release of endorphins into this area is associated with liking. The release of dopamine into the nucleus accumbens is also crucial to reinforcement; it promotes learning how to predict and obtain a given reward. 三种reward都是同一个reward通路里，wanting和reinforcement是多巴胺，liking是内啡肽， Any regulatory system, whether human-made or organic, makes use of feedback control. But the satiety mechanisms are not as robust as the hunger mechanisms. The same researchers also found that lean subjects had higher baseline levels of naturally produced PYY than did obese subjects and exhibited a much greater increase in PYY following a meal (see Figure 5.5). Not surprising, the hunger mechanism, when it is working optimally, is sensitive not just to the short-term indicators of the amount of food recently eaten but also to the amount of fat stored in the body. Subsequent research, however, found that hunger is reduced by increased leptin up to a certain level, but that most overweight people already have blood concentrations of leptin well above that level and additional leptin has no effect (Marx, 2003). Evolution led us and other animals to be opportunists with regard to food; our hunger increases when food is available so that we don’t pass up opportunities to eat. renewed activity in appetite-stimulating neurons in the hypothalamus  This phenomenon is referred to as sensory- specific satiety, and many experiments show that it is mediated primarily by the sense of taste (Raynor & Epstein, 2001). even if the nutritional content of various foods is identical  也许是因为进化上多样化进食营养丰富 It simply means that the environmental conditions that promote obesity are fairly constant within Western cultures, so differences in weight have mostly to do with genetic differences in how individuals respond to those conditions. 这里的环境说的大概是文化。如果考虑社经地位的话肯定有影响。 More important, subjects reported feelings of fullness and satiety after consuming glucose, but not after consuming fructose. when prenatal nutrition is poor, brain circuitry develops differently, causing individuals to hold on to as many calories as they can in anticipation of limited food resources (see Gluckman & Hansen, 2005). 吃的越少体脂越难减，不仅适用于个体健身，也适用于产前环境 The low amplitude of these waves indicates that neurons are firing in an unsynchronized manner, such that their contributions to the EEG tend to cancel one another out. 波幅是整体发电同步性 On the basis of the EEG alone, one might think that the person had awakened, but direct observation shows that the person is sound asleep, and the record of muscle tension shows that the muscles are more relaxed than at any other sleep stage. Yet, consistent with the unsynchronized EEG, other indices of high arousal are apparent: Breathing and heart rate become more rapid and less regular; penile erection occurs in males (even in infants and young boys); twitching movements occur in the small muscles of the fingers and face; and, most indicative of all, the eyes move rapidly back and forth and up and down under the closed eyelids.  除了肌肉基本都活跃 true dream (Foulkes, 1985). Such a dream is experienced as if it were a real event rather than something merely imagined or thought about Often the subject of sleep thought is some problem that had been of concern during the day. 原来梦到思考问题是因为这个。 Whether asleep or awake, the sound of one’s own name had effects on emotional centers in the limbic system that did not occur in response to sounds that were less meaningful to the person. The fact that parents can sleep through a thunderstorm but become aroused by the whimpering of their child in the next room is further evidence that the sleeping person’s brain sorts out sounds by meaning to some degree. Countless children have asked that question to protest being put to bed, and many scientists have asked it, too. Infants who are being cared for by adults do not need to spend time foraging, and sleep protects them from wandering into danger. Their sleep also gives their caregivers an opportunity to rest or attend to other needs. At one extreme, large grazing animals such as bison and horses average only 2 or 3 hours of sleep per 24-hour day. Because of their large size and because they eat grass and other vegetation, which are extremely low in calories, they must spend most of their time eating, and, therefore, they have little time to sleep. Moreover, because of their size and the fact that they cannot burrow or climb trees, it is difficult for such animals to find safe sleeping places. Thus, they are safer awake. Animals that rely heavily on vision generally forage during the day and sleep at night. However, contrary to this theory, research with birds has failed to show any correlation across species between sleep time and metabolic rate; instead, it has shown a strong correlation between sleep time and risk of predation, which tends to support the preservation and protection theory discussed previously. sleep deprivation in rats results in breakdown of various bodily tissues, leading, within about three weeks, to death If sleep in itself serves purposes of energy conservation, protection from danger, and bodily restoration, then what is the function of REM sleep? 前两个理论无法解释rem Perhaps as their brains are developing in the relative isolation of the womb, they need to exercise sensory and motor pathways, and REM sleep is their means for doing that (Hobson, 1988). By the time of birth a neural inhibitory system matures, which inactivates most motor neurons during REM sleep and thus prevents most movements that would otherwise occur. However, the motor neurons to the eyes and to various internal structures, such as the heart, remain uninhibited, so eye movements and increased heart rate persist as observable effects of the brain’s activity. FIGURE 5.10 Changes in sleep over the course of life As shown here, both the total daily sleep time and the percentage of sleep time spent in REM sleep decrease as a person gets older. 不对，图上三岁前rem减少没错但是慢波睡眠在增加，三岁后rem不变了也就是rem比例其实没有减少反而增加了 We have no idea whether human fetuses, such as this one of 7 months, experience dream sensations or not, but we do know that they spend most 407 胎儿做梦的话会是什么样的梦？以后也许有技术可以成像 electrical stimulation in portions of the cerebral cortex produced dream-like hallucinations in people who were awake (Penfield & Perot, 1963). A similar phenomenon may well occur in REM sleep Even if dreams are triggered by random events in the brain, the actual images, emotions, and story lines that constitute the dream are not random. They certainly contain elements based on the dreamer’ 产生的原因是无意义的，但产生的方式和内容不一定是无意义的。动力因和质料因。 One theory, founded on the observation that dreams so often involve fearful content and negative emotions, is that dreams somehow provide a means of rehearsing and resolving threatening experiences that either have happened or could happen in the person’s real life (Valli et al., 2008). engage in some degree of thought, just as it does in non- REM sleep. But now the thought becomes wrapped up in trying to make sense of the hallucinations. The result is the weaving of a story connecting one hallucination to the next—hence, the dream. Because of reduced mental capacity during sleep, the story is less logical than one the awake brain would develop, but it still contains some degree of logic. against the psychoanalytic  Do Dreams Have Functions? 睡眠，REM，梦，三者都有各自的理论和作用假设 In fact, in one experiment, people were more likely to dream about a particular person if they were asked to suppress thoughts about that person just before going to sleep than if they were asked to think actively about that person just before going to sleep (Wegner et al., 2004). The most extreme nonsomniac in Meddis’s sample was a 70-year-old nurse who reported that for most of her life she had slept about 50 minutes per night. She was very active during the day and usually spent the night in quiet activities, such as reading or painting. To verify her nonsomnia, Meddis observed her continuously for a prolonged period in the sleep lab. She slept not at all the first 3 days and nights in the lab, remaining cheerful and talkative throughout. Finally, on the fourth night, she slept a total of 99 minutes and awoke feeling fully rested. A more recent study, of people who did well on an average of 3 to 6 hours of sleep per night, found that these people were unusually energetic and scored higher than average, in a positive direction, on an “Attitude to Life” questionnaire  震惊。我国教科书缺了太多有意思的东西。居然现在才知道还有这种人。也许研究这些人的基因或神经元模式可以改造人类睡眠时间。这也意味着前述的理论也许都是错的。或者对现代社会的人类来说睡眠已经不是必要。 The drive for that much sleep may have evolved for reasons other than body repair and brain growth, but that doesn’t mean we can ignore it. Between 1.5% and 2.5% of the hunter- gatherers did experience insomnia about once a year, considerably lower than rates for people from industrial countries, which is about 30% That number had fallen to 6.7 hours by 1990 and remained stable for the next 20 years (Jones, 2013), causing some to propose that the United States is facing a public health crisis (Barnes & Drake, 2015). The researchers reported that these people living a traditional lifestyle without artificial lighting go to sleep about three hours after sunset, usually awake before sunrise, sleep an average of about 6 to 7 hours a night, and rarely take naps.  attending to the task and because their performance is often interrupted by brief moments of falling asleep, from which they arouse themselves. In general, stimulants such as caffeine, which counteract sleepiness, also remove the negative effects of sleep deprivation on the performance of such tasks. 所以并不是睡眠不足直接影响认知能力，而是被睡眠驱力中介影响。 over a cycle of approximately 24 hours, even when surgically isolated from other parts of the brain (Herzog, 2007). If this nucleus is damaged, the affected animal or human will lose regular sleep–wake rhythms and instead sleep at rather random times over the 24-hour da 视交叉上核控制规律睡眠时间但不影响睡意产生 Melatonin is the hormone most directly linked to the circadian clock, and is often used by researchers as an index of the clock’s timing. This hormone, produced by the pineal gland, begins to be secreted into the bloodstream in the evening, typically about 2 hours before a person is ready to fall asleep, and is secreted at relatively high levels until approximately the time when the person is ready to awaken naturally in the These latter emotions are called self-conscious emotions, which seem to depend on an individual’s self-awareness (Draghi-Lorenz et al., 2001; Lewis, 2000). Some researchers refer to them as other-conscious emotions (Saarni et al., 2006) because they seem to be related to the expectations and opinions of other people for one’s behavior.  Sometimes an emotional feeling is experienced as free-floating rather than directed at a particular object; if it lasts for a sufficiently long period, it is referred to as a mood. In some cases, everyday language provides different terms for moods and emotions that have similar underlying feelings. A feeling of being tense, jittery, and unhappy may be labeled as anxiety when it is a free-floating mood but as fear when it is an emotion associated with an object such as a spider or an upcoming examination. One’s fear of heights, fear of death, and fear of others’ judgments, for example, may be experienced as qualitatively different from one another. Darwin proposed that emotions are universal and have species-specific adaptive functions, reflected by facial expressions. 为什么所有动物的表情进化在脸部而不是别的地方？也许是因为感官要接收信息必须直面对象，所以只有感官最密集的脸部最方便传达信息。接收与输出信息的部位重叠，效率最大。除了进食和眨眼，脸部肌肉基本闲置，别的部位肌肉得随时待命甚至一直激活比如走路或爬行。 Implicit in the positive-negative dimension of emotional feelings is the idea that emotions motivate us to approach objects that can help us, and to avoid or repel objects that hinder u Conversely, in the emotion of disgust—which involves a rejection of some object in the environment—the field of vision and the nasal passages narrow, cutting off the offending sight or odor (see Figure 5.14b). 恐惧和厌恶都针对某一对象的是负性情绪，区别是前者的对象很可能对个人有危险，后者不危险 The expression of fear, for example, involves a widening of the eyes and an opening of the nasal passages, which increases the field of vision and sensitivity to odors (see Figure 5.14a). Moreover, brain imaging studies have shown that a certain portion of the somatosensory area of the cerebral cortex, which becomes active when a person is sensing his or her own bodily state, also becomes active when a person is consciously assessing his or her own emotional state (Critchely et al., More specifically, he proposed that perception and thought about the environment influence the type of emotion felt, and that sensory feedback about the degree of bodily arousal influences the intensity of the emotion felt (see the bottom portion of Figure 5.15). In the 1960s, Stanley Schachter developed a theory of emotion that can be understood as a variation of James’s theory. Paul Ekman (1984) proposed a theory of emotions that is similar to James’s peripheral feedback theory but focuses particularly on the role of the face. Ekman and his colleagues (1983) found that induced facial expressions not only can alter self-reports of emotion but also can produce physiological responses throughout the body that are consistent with the induced expression. For instance, anger, whether relived or mimicked by facial molding, was accompanied by increases in skin temperature that did not occur for the other emotions (consistent with evidence that blood tends to flow into the skin during anger). However, some visual input goes directly from the thalamus to the amygdala, bypassing the cerebral cortex. They also failed to distinguish in the usual ways between foods and nonfoods or between appropriate and inappropriate objects for sexual attention. 杏仁核主管的情绪很广？性欲和食欲也与他有关？不过这是猴子。 The amygdala may also be activated, but less so, by stimuli that induce positive emotions, and may be more generally involved in processing the relevance of stimuli, both positive and negative (Cunningham & Borsch, 2012). Similarly, people who have damage to the visual cortex have been shown to respond emotionally to visual stimuli that they could not consciously see (Anders et al., 2004). The prefrontal cortex receives input from the amygdala and from the somatosensory cortex, and such input provides it with information about the amygdala’s assessment of the stimulus and the body’s state of arousal. Researchers have found that anger is generally associated with greater activation of the left prefrontal cortex than the right, especially if the subjects are given instructions that lead them to visualize possible responses to the anger-provoking stimulus (Harmon-Jones et al., 2006). The distinction is fuzzy, however, because during the earliest steps of taking in stimulus information, we already begin to organize it in ways useful for extracting meaning. physical stimulus→physiological response→sensory experience temperature (with separate receptors for sensing hot and cold) and pain, neither of which is included in Aristotle’s five. Other senses omitted by Aristotle have to do with body position and the body’s internal environment. We have a sense of balance (vestibular), mediated by a mechanism in the inner ear, and a sense of limb position and movement (proprioception), mediated by receptors in muscles and joints. For some senses, receptors are simply the sensitive ends of sensory neurons; for others, they are separate cells that form synapses upon sensory neurons. For some senses, receptors all exist in a specific, localized sensory organ, such as the ear, eye, or nose; for others, they exist in a wide variety of locations. Pain receptors, for example, exist not just throughout the skin but also in muscles, tendons, joints, and many other places.  If we could somehow rewire those connections, sending your optic nerves to your auditory brain areas and your auditory nerves to your visual brain areas, you would hear light and see sound. 不对。雪貂的实验，视觉神经接到听皮层仍然是看见光，只不过听皮层功能变为了视觉。 in such a way that information about the quantity and quality of the stimulus is preserved in the pattern of action potentials sent to the brain. In contrast, the coding of stimulus quality occurs because qualitatively different stimuli optimally activate different sets of neurons. In the ear, different receptors are most sensitive to different sound frequencies. 但问题是存在性质不同的感受器不能证明主观经验也是质的区别，因为每个感受器都同时对所有刺激反应只是程度不同，主观经验是所有类型感受器强度的模式而不是一个类型感受器的反应。亮度都对色调有影响。响度对音高也是。质性和量性很难区分。两个颜色之间总是可以无限细分 The change in sensitivity that occurs when a given set of sensory receptors and neurons is either strongly stimulated or relatively unstimulated for a length of time is called sensory adaptation. 维持在高强度刺激时感受性降低，vice versa。但这都是对绝对量的适应，也就是恒定刺激的适应。是否会对变化速度适应？也就是说是否会对刺激量变化的加速度敏感？ However, some adaptation is mediated by changes further inward in the central nervous system. As a result, senses are more responsive to changing than to unchanging stimulation. 总结一下，主观感觉这个因变量取决于三个自变量，物理刺激的质，量，感受器接受刺激的累积时间。前两个是绝对量，由刺激决定，时间是相对量。三者中任意一个都会影响其余两个。每一个感觉通道的主观经验与三个自变量的关系函数理论上可以转化成一个四维坐标上的曲线。 In other words, the women were smelling this substance at concentrations less than one hundred-thousandth of the minimal concentration that the men could smell. 这只是味觉，但无法证明女性在所有感觉上都比男性敏感。而且只是练习后的下降，练习前差别不大。要注意的是这里随着时间感受性提高，与感觉适应相反。区别也许在于前者是练习效应，随着实验进行刺激不断降低难度提高，而感觉适应的刺激不变。 Smell and taste are called chemical senses because the stimuli for them are chemical molecules. The chemical senses are first and foremost systems for warning and attracting. They play on our drives and emotions more than on our intellects. The connections from the olfactory bulb to the limbic system are so strong, in fact, that the limbic system was at one time referred to as the rhinencephalon, which literally means “nose brain.” 是否嗅觉不灵的人会有情绪问题，情绪淡漠？慢性鼻炎或通路受损的。待查文献。 Thus, the ratio indicates the type of odorant (quality of the smell), while the total amount of activity indicates the amount of odorant (quantity, or intensity of the smell). Smell and taste inputs converge in a certain portion of the orbitofrontal cortex, and this area appears to be critical for the psychological experience of flavor (Rolls, 2004). Remarkably, we experience flavor as coming from the mouth, where the food exists, and as indistinguishable from taste, even though it actually comes from the olfactory epithelium (Shepherd, 2006). 口舌的触觉对嗅觉的定位起到了决定性作用。就像视线决定了扩音器的声音知觉方位。 Many elderly people complain of loss in ability to taste foods, but tests typically show that their real loss is not taste but smell (Bartoshuk & Beauchamp, 1994). Such findings are consistent with theories that olfaction serves one or more special functions related to reproduction in women, such as choosing mates, avoiding toxins during pregnancy, or bonding with infants. Such experiments have revealed that parents can tell which of their children wore the shirt, children can tell which of their siblings wore it, and people generally can distinguish between the odors of two strangers (Weisfeld et al., 2003). 想起那个纪录片里能闻到帕金森病气味的人 Thus, by choosing mates that smell most different from themselves, mice choose mates that (a) are not likely to be close relatives of themselves, and (b) will add much new genetic variation to the mix of disease-fighting cells that develop in the offspring. These findings suggest that women are capable of using a man’s odor in evaluating his potential worth as a mating partner, whether they are conscious of this fact or not. Brothers and sisters showed mutual aversion to the odor of their opposite-sex siblings, fathers were aversive to the odor of their daughters (but not their sons), and daughters to the odor of their fathers (but not their mothers). symmetrical (and typically more attractive) men,  Whereas the main olfactory epithelium is designed to distinguish somewhat imprecisely among many thousands of different odorants, the vomeronasal organ appears to be designed for very precise recognition of, and exquisite sensitivity to, a small number of specific substances—the species’ pheromones (Buck, 2000b). One theory is that the function of hair in these locations is to retain the secretions and provide a large surface area from which they can evaporate, so as to increase their effectiveness as odorants (Stoddart, 1990). Sex-attractant pheromones are valuable for animals that mate only at certain times of the year or only when the female is ovulating, as a means of synchronizing the sex drives of males and females to maximize the chance of conception. Humans have taken a different evolutionary route, such that sexual drive and behavior are not tied to a season, cycle, or variable physiological state. For that reason, perhaps, there is little or no need for us to advertise by scent our readiness to mate. 也许是语言替代了嗅觉 Some insects have taste receptors on their feet, which allow them to taste what they are walking on. Fish have taste receptors not just in their mouths but all over their bodies (Hara, 1994). They can taste their prey before they see it, and they use taste to help them track it down.  Most people have between 2,000 and 10,000 taste buds, about two-thirds of which are on the tongue and the rest of which are on the roof of the mouth and in the opening of the throat (Herness & Gilbertson, 1999). More recently, fat has been suggested as a sixth taste, with its own sensation and class of taste buds (Keast & Costanzo, 2015). Many bitter-tasting plants (hemlock is a famous example) and some animals (notably some species of caterpillars), as part of their own evolution, have concentrated toxic substances into their tissues— substances that can harm or kill animals that eat them. 有意思的是，这种特性并不能阻止个体在当下被吃，但可以在未来的进化中淘汰掉自己的捕食者。 Protein (the main natural source of umami flavor) is essential for building and restoring tissues. Individuals that avoided all bitter tastes would lose the nutritional value of plants that taste bitter but are safe to eat. Through observation and experience, people and other plant-eating animals can learn to eat and enjoy bitter foods that have no toxins or low levels of toxins. When you see, hear, smell, taste, or touch something, you experience the sensation as coming from outside yourself (from the thing you are seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, or touching); but when you feel pain, you experience it as coming from your own body. Pain is not only a sense but also a perception, an emotion, and a drive. reflexive responses—such as the automatic withdrawal of the hand from a hot stove—independent of conscious experience. Others send their axons to the thalamus When your skin is pricked or burned, you feel two separate waves of pain: a sharp, highly localized first pain, followed (1 or 2 seconds later) by a dull, burning, more diffuse, longer-lasting second pain. The first is mediated by A-delta fibers, and the second by the slower C fibers (Basbaum & Jessell, 2000). The C fibers also respond in a more prolonged way to a variety of chemicals that are released by damaged or infected cells, accounting for the persistent pain that accompanies burns, wounds, and infections. People with damage to the cingulate cortex and the insular cortex experience a condition called asymbolia for pain (Price, 2000). They can perceive a painful stimulus and describe it as such, identify the location of the pain, describe its qualities, and rate its intensity; but they do not feel a normal desire to escape the pain. The pain doesn’t bother them. People with prefrontal lobe damage feel and respond to the immediate threat and unpleasantness of pain, but they do not worry about it, just as they do not worry about or make plans based on other experiences (Price, 2000). This suggests that the brain’s mechanism for experiencing pain and assigning it to a particular body location can be activated without sensory input from that part of the body. In fact, the lack of sensory input might trigger phantom- limb pain by removing a source of inhibition to the pain mechanisms of the brain. 正常的身体感觉可以告诉大脑肢体正常。失去了感觉就失去了这一信息，大脑会解读为肢体不正常。疼痛不仅包括自下而上，还有自上而下。也许感觉之间相互抑制，正常感觉会抑制痛觉，就像痛觉抑制痒。somatosensory失去了肢体的输入，也许痛觉区域会自发放电。 Electrical stimulation of the PAG has a powerful analgesic (pain-reducing) effect—so powerful, in fact, that abdominal surgery can be performed without drugs in animals that are receiving such stimulation (Mason, 2001). Evolutionary psychologists hypothesize that this pain enhancement effect may have evolved to motivate ill individuals to rest rather than move around, in order to conserve energy needed to fight the disease (Kluger, 1991). For example, soldiers severely wounded in battle often do not notice their wounds until the battle is over. Faced with a predator or similar threat, a human or other animal cannot afford to nurse a wound or favor it by limping;  Endorphins are believed to inhibit pain by acting both in the PAG and at the places where pain-carrying neurons enter the spinal cord and lower brainstem. He hangs from this rope, swinging back and forth, while he blesses the children and the crops of the village. In all of these cases, the analgesic effect did not occur when subjects were injected with a drug that blocks the actions of endorphins. In one experiment both the reduced pain and the sense of euphoria failed to occur in runners who had been treated with an endorphin-blocking drug (Janal et al., 1984). A less dramatic example, in cultures where faith is more often placed in science and medicine, is the placebo effect on pain.  this placebo effect did not occur in subjects who were treated with an endorphin-blocking drug (Levine et al., 1979). In some animals, such as moths, sound is sensed through modified touch receptors located on flexible patches of skin that vibrate in response to sound waves. In humans and other mammals, the special patches of skin for hearing have migrated to a location inside the head,  In some animals, such as moths, sound is sensed through modified touch receptors located on flexible patches of skin that vibrate in response to sound waves. In humans and other mammals, the special patches of skin for hearing have migrated to a location inside the head,  Because the oval window has only about one-thirtieth the area of the tympanic membrane, the pressure (force per unit area) that is funneled to it by the ossicles is about 30 times greater than the pressure on the eardrum. Thus, the main function of the middle ear is to increase the amount of pressure that sound waves exert upon the inner ear so that transduction can occur. up-and-down waving motion of the basilar membrane, which is very flexible. The tectorial membrane, which runs parallel to the basilar membrane, is less flexible and does not move when the basilar membrane moves.  The other form of deafness is sensorineural deafness, which results from damage to the hair cells of the cochlea or damage to the auditory neurons. Congenital deafness (deafness present at birth) may involve damage to either the hair cells or the auditory neurons. The first, called conduction deafness, occurs when the ossicles of the middle ear become rigid and cannot carry sounds inward from the tympanic membrane to the cochlea. It is important to note that cochlear implants are effective when deafness has resulted from the destruction of hair cells, but they do not help individuals whose auditory nerve has been destroyed. The most likely answer is that the cells coding high frequencies are acted upon by all sounds, while those coding low frequencies are acted upon only by low-frequency sounds. There is now good evidence that the primary receptor cells for hearing are the inner row of hair cells and that the outer three rows serve mostly a different function. When these outer rows are activated, they stiffen in a manner that amplifies and sharpens the traveling wave ( That is, each neuron there is maximally responsive to sounds of a particular frequency, and the neurons are systematically arranged such that high-frequency tones activate neurons at one end of this cortical area and low-frequency tones activate neurons at the other end. intraparietal sulcus, which receives input from the primary auditory cortex. This part of the brain is involved in both music perception and visual space perception. In one research study, people who described themselves as “tone deaf” and performed poorly on a test of ability to distinguish among different musical notes also performed poorly on a visual-spatial test that required them to mentally rotate pictured objects in order to match them to pictures of the same objects from other viewpoints (Douglas & Bilkey, 2007). Perhaps it is no coincidence that we (and also people who speak other languages) describe pitch in spatial terms—“high” and “low.” Our brain may, in some way, interpret a high note as high and a low note as low, using part of the same neural system as is used to perceive three-dimensional space. Heredity determines the general form of the tonotopic map, but experience determines the specific amount of cortex devoted to any particular range of frequencies. People can attend to one voice and ignore another much more easily if the two voices come from different locations in the room than if they come from the same location (Feng & Ratnam, 2000). Even newborn infants do this (Muir & Field, 1979), indicating that the ability to localize a sound does not require learning, although this ability improves markedly by the end of the first year (Johnson et al., 2005). Many auditory neurons in the brainstem receive input from both ears. Some of these neurons respond most to waves that reach both ears at once; others respond most to waves that reach one ear some microseconds—ranging from just a few on up to about 700—before, or after, reaching the other ear. You identify the word not from the absolute amplitude or frequency of the sound waves, but from certain patterns of change in these that occur over time as the word is spoken. For example, some neurons in areas near the primary auditory area respond only to certain combinations of frequencies, others only to rising or falling pitches, others only to brief clicks or bursts of sound, and still others only to sound sources that are moving in a particular direction (Baumgart et al., 1999; Phillips, 1989). One way to make sense of this phenomenon is to assume that much of our perceptual experience of hearing derives from a brief auditory sensory memory, which lasts for a matter of seconds and is modifiable. Most remarkably, even words that occur after the missing phoneme can influence which phoneme is heard. Not surprisingly, phonemic restoration has been found to be much more reliable for words that are very much expected to occur in the sentence than for words that are less expected (Sivonen et al., 2006). Even when they listened repeatedly, with instructions to determine what sound was missing, subjects were unable to detect that any sound was missing. A limiting factor in these illusions is that the gap in the sentence or tune must be filled with noise; it can’t be a silent gap. In everyday life the sounds we listen to are often masked by bits of noise, never by bits of silence, so perhaps illusory sound restorations are an evolutionary adaptation  words generate a momentary false memory of hearing, earlier—a phoneme that wasn’t actually present—and that memory is indistinguishable in type from memories of phonemes that actually did occur. Illusory restoration has also been demonstrated in music perception. People hear a missing note in a familiar tune as if it were present These organs may have initially enabled circadian rhythms Even single-celled organisms contain chemicals that respond to light and alter the organism’s activity in survival-promoting ways. additional function of responding to shadows, which could help detect predators. With further natural selection, the skin covering the eyespots became transparent, allowing in both more light and clearer shadows. The spots then gradually moved inward, into fluid-filled pits underneath the transparent skin, reducing glare and enabling the animal to detect the direction from which changes in illumination were coming. Subsequent evolution led to the thickening of one of the membranes covering each eyespot to form a crude lens, which may have served merely to magnify the light reaching the photoreceptors. With further evolutionary refinement, the lens became capable of projecting an image onto the lining of photoreceptors.  The light rays that diverge from any given point on the surface of an object are brought back together (focused) at a distinct point on the retina A white object in sunlight at noon reflects roughly 100 million times as much light as the same object reflects on a starlit but moonless night (Riggs, 1965), yet we can see the object in either condition. The iris contributes to these adaptive processes by dilating (widening) the pupil in dim light and constricting it in bright light. A fully dilated pupil allows in about 16 times as much light as a fully constricted pupil (Matlin & Foley, 1997). Temporary changes in the sensitivity of visual neurons that receive input from the receptor cells also contribute  For them, any color that they can see can be matched by varying the proportion of just two different wavelengths of light (see Figure 7.7). There is an upside to some forms of color blindness, however. Color-blind people are not easily fooled by camouflage; in World War II the U.S. Army even assigned color-blind personnel to detect camouflage colors that people with normal color vision could not see (Reit, 1978). A mixture of wavelengths from the blue and yellow parts of the spectrum, or from the green and red parts, appears white (colorless but bright) because the two sets of wavelengths cancel each other out in their effects on color detectors but act in concert to excite brightness detectors. ▄ Ultraviolet mouths These starling nestlings’ gaping beaks and mouths would appear black to us, but, as shown in this UV photograph, they reflect ultraviolet light intensely. They are ideally designed to attract the attention of the mother starling without attracting that of mammalian predators who cannot see ultraviolet light. To convince yourself that this adaptive process occurs early in the visual pathway, before the inputs from the two eyes converge, follow the instructions in the second paragraph of the caption of Figure 7.9. 那么皮层是否会适应？ As an exercise, try constructing diagrams that would produce B−Y+ and R−G+ opponent neurons. controlling the lens  Also, convergence (both eyes looking at the same object) and coordination (both eyes following a moving stimulus in a coordinated fashion) are poor at birth, but each develops rapidly and is adultlike by 6 months of age (Aslin & Jackson, 1979). experience-expectant processes ( However, if kittens are deprived of visual experience immediately after opening their eyes, they gradually lose their sensitivity to orientation. Experience (or lack of experience) changes the structure and organization of their brains. Shortly after surgery, they can tell the difference between a square and a triangle only by counting the corners (Carlson & Hyvarinen, 1983; Von Senden, 1960). Moreover, even for those babies who had cataracts removed early, some aspects of face processing were impaired (Le Grand et al., 2001). This finding suggests that there may be different sensitive periods for the brain areas associated with visual acuity and those associated with processing faces.  The animal—usually a cat or a monkey—is anesthetized, so it is unconscious, but its eyes are kept open and the neural connections from the eyes to the relevant brain neurons are intact. Treisman and other modern perceptual psychologists would not disagree with this point. In our conscious experience, we do typically perceive wholes before we perceive parts; the building up of the wholes from the parts occurs through unconscious mental processes. They would also agree that the whole is different from the sum of its parts because the whole is defined by the way the parts are organized, not just by the parts themselves. 特征整合是无意识的。格式塔说的知觉指的是知觉意识到的部分。treismen虽然强调特征，但也有整合，即组织后的整体。 This rather unspecific principle encompasses the other principles listed above but also includes other ways by which the perceptual system organizes stimuli into their simplest (most easily explained) arrangement. The unconscious-inference explanation of this is that the white square is more needed in b than in a to make sense of the stimulus input. The arrangement of four black angular objects is more likely to occur in everyday experience than is the arrangement of four disks with wedges cut out in b. For example, visual stimuli that produce illusory contours activate edge-detector neurons in the primary visual cortex that are receiving input from precisely that part of the stimulus where the illusory contour is seen (Albert, 2007; Lee, 2002). visual form agnosia can see that something is present and can identify some of its elements, such as its color and brightness, but cannot perceive its shape. They are unable to describe or draw the outlines of objects or patterns that they are shown. In contrast, people with visual object agnosia can describe and draw the shapes of objects that they are shown, but still cannot identify the objects It’s interesting to note that the term agnosia was coined in the late nineteenth century by Sigmund Freud, who then was a young, little-known neurologist (Goodale & Milner, 2004). Apparently the “where-and-how” pathway, which was intact in this woman, is capable of calculating the sizes and shapes of objects, as well as their places, but does not make that information available to the conscious mind. 是否可以说背侧通路偏无意识，腹侧偏意识？而且意识与无意识有质的区别，意识并不是像精神分析所谓的无意识冰川的上层，而是根本编码着本质上不同的内容。意识与无意识并不是上下级关系，而是一定程度上平行。  and often they can describe verbally where the object is located, but they have great difficulty using visual input to coordinate their movements. where不都存储在背侧，一部分可以言语意识表达的where信息存储在腹侧，但是应用这些信息指导行为的功能存储在背侧 So when we say there are special psychological and brain mechanisms people use in processing faces, we mean upright faces—the way people typically see faces every day. 也许是大脑里存储了一个脸的原型，而这个原型当然是从知觉经验抽象出来的，是正置的，而不是抽象的几何关系。人脸识别时我们是与这个原型对比，所以任何细微的差别都很容易知觉到。有点像多巴胺通路和感觉适应对变化的敏感，机制都是类似。大脑对长时间接受的刺激会形成预期或习惯，形成一个基线水平，于是任何上下波动都变得更敏感（比如89和91相差不大，但如果以90为基线，则负一和正一就形成很大的反差）。在倒置的人脸识别中相当于取消了这个基线，不再能与记忆中的原型对照。只能一个个特征对比序列加工而不是整体的自动化的。 Rather than reflecting racism, it reflects experience with viewing and remembering faces from one’s own versus from different races. 人脸原型的布置方式是天生的，但原型细节是经验修正的 In contrast, the occipital face area appears to be responsible for processing new faces and distinguishing faces from other objects, and is strongly connected to the fusiform face area (Liu et al., 2010). The effects of unconscious inference occur through top-down control mechanisms in the brain. 格式塔认为知觉加工是先天，但这里自上而下加工是后天。其实格式塔知觉组织原则很难排除后天影响。但应该有一部分是先天的。 Prosopagnosia can be the result of a stroke, although some people are born with the condition (Duchaine & Nakayama, 2006). A 2006 German study revealed that the prevalence of hereditary prosopagnosia is as high as 2% in the population  如果有天生脸盲的话就否定了FFA区域只是对熟悉物体的识别这一说法。Ffa至少主要是针对人脸的，即使后天经验可以让它产生别的功能  “Many of them had not realized that they were dealing with a specific dysfunction. They have learned to recognize people from voice, gait, habits, gestalt, clothing, accessories, name, and other non-facial cues” (p. For us to see and recognize objects, the brain must pick up from the optic nerves the relevant features of the object and integrate those features into 物体识别也可以看成格式塔原则或者自上而下加工的具体应用 A major step toward answering this question was the publication of a treatise on vision by Hermann von Helmholtz (1867/1962), the same German physiologist who developed the trichromatic theory of color vision. 赫尔姆霍兹的四个理论，1视觉三色，2听觉共鸣，3神经速度，4深度知觉 More recently, researchers have found that neurons in an area of the visual cortex close to the primary visual area respond best to stimuli that are presented to both eyes at slightly disparate locations on the retina (Thomas et al., 2002). Pictorial Cues Motion parallax depends on the geometry of true three- dimensionality and cannot be used to depict depth in two-dimensional pictures. 单眼视差分为两部分，三维和二维。前者是运动后者静止。 farther away than those that are displaced from the horizon in either direction (either below it or above it). Ifaskedtojudgedistance,mostpeoplesaythatthehorizonmoonlooks closer (because they know that the moon doesn’t really change size, so its large apparent size must be due to closeness). This explanation has been called the farther-larger-nearer theory  意识作为一个interpreter只能为无意识擦屁股。但这些理论应该都可以用实验验证。比如在实验室创造一个月亮错觉，把月亮换成别的物体，这时如果被试意识言语报告不再是地平线的物体更近而是更远了，那么这个"远大近"的理论就得到证明。感觉验证也不难，为什么现在月亮错觉还没有定论？待查文献。 Even today, the main objection to this explanation of the moon illusion is that people do not consciously see the horizon moon as farther away than the zenith moon (Hershenson, 2003). When people see the large- appearing horizon moon and are asked whether it seems farther away or closer than usual, they usually say closer.  Subjects were told that the bimodal trials (tones and lights) were simply mistakes made by the experimenter. When the bimodal trials were presented, subjects pressed the “light key” on 49 of 50 trials  考虑到听觉传导速度其实比视觉快。即使这样还是胜不过视觉。也就意味着视觉可以在听觉已经开始处理后强行接管。也许可以试着把视觉刺激延后，到多长的间隔可以抵消视觉的主导效应？这个临界点处在唐德斯三阶段的哪个位置？是在决策阶段（辨别和选择）还是反应阶段？不过还有一个变量是刺激强度等其他属性。光强和声强能否匹配。如何用心理物理法匹配不同通道刺激？待查文献。 infants as young as 2 months of age are able to match a person’s lip movements to the corresponding sounds (Kuhl & Meltzoff, 1982), although this ability improves with age and experience McGurk effect (McGurk & MacDonald, 1976). This is experienced when one hears a person speak one sound (the phoneme “ba,” for example), but watches a face articulating a different sound (the phoneme “ga,” for example).  视觉不仅指导听觉的方位来源，还可以指导更细节的特征即语音知觉。有点像stroop，stroop是两个视觉刺激竞争，文字胜过颜色。Mcgurk是口型视觉胜过了听觉。也许可以把Mcgurk改成stroop，即一边看着口型但是复述同时听到的与口型冲突的语音。对人类来说，语言虽然来源于声音，但大部分时候却是与视觉联系在一起的，比如书面文字和生活中互相交流时的口型变化模式。单纯靠听觉分辨语音的情况很少。听觉往往不够纯粹考虑到各种噪音。所以人类进化出了各种语音知觉的机制避免过度依赖听觉（比如前文的缺失音位自动补全的错觉）。与语境一样，口型也成了一个辅助语音知觉的因素。 Multisensory neurons are neurons that are influenced by stimuli from more than one sense modality, such as those discovered in the superior colliculus of cats, and later of other mammals (Stein & Meredith, 1993; Wallace et al., 2012). 有点像前面双眼视差的神经元，只不过双眼视差是同一感觉系统内的两个器官间的整合，这里是不同感觉系统间的。 In other words, there is an implicit multisensory match between a visual stimulus and sound, or perhaps the muscle patterns we use to make those sounds. The fact that 2.5-year-old toddlers—who can’t yet read—also show the Bouba/Kiki effect indicates that it is not due to the appearance of the letters, but to the sounds of the words ( 但字母形状似乎与读音也有一定关系。比如o。也许字母形成最开始与口型就有一定关系。包括后来的造词过程。口型，字母，物体视觉形状或属性，这三者多少都有相互关系。 Several hundred years ago such claims would brand one as a witch, and in more enlightened times experiences such as “seeing sounds” were apt to be viewed as hallucinations and perhaps a sign of schizophrenia. Since the 1980s or so, however, the situation has changed substantially, as modern science has taken the phenomenon of synesthesia seriously. Current estimates are that between 1 and 4% of the population are synesthetes, and, unlike schizophrenia, synesthesia does not interfere with normal functioning and is not classified as a mental disorder Most people with synesthesia find their synesthetic experiences to be emotionally positive. They report that they have been synesthetic since childhood, and it apparently is a stable characteristic, lasting a lifetime (Hochel & Milán, 2008). There is evidence that, for some synesthetes, specific grapheme- color pairings are linked to childhood toys containing colored letters (Witthoft & Winawer, 2013). Synesthesia runs in families, suggesting a genetic component, but it often skips generations. Moreover, monozygotic (genetically identical) twins do not always share the trait (Smilek et al., 2005), indicating that the genetic route to synesthesia is not a simple one. In one large-scale study, synesthesia was found to be disproportionally frequent in artists (Rich et al., 2005), something that had been anecdotally reported earlier. For the most common type of synesthesia, grapheme-color, the cross- activation is proposed to occur within the fusiform gyrus, between one area that represents the visual appearance of graphemes (numbers and letters) and an adjacent area associated with color vision, called V4 (Ramachandran & Hubbard, 2001; see Figure 7.39). One hypothesis related to the cross-activation theory was originally proposed by Daphne and Charles Maurer (1988), who suggested that human infants are synesthetes, having many neural connections between different sensory areas. As children develop, most of these synaptic connections get pruned, resulting in increased segregation of the senses (Holcombe et al., 2009; Maurer & Mondloch, 2005). Adult synesthetes are people who fail to display the typical pruning of these cross-modal connections. In support of this, we know that for typically developing children the number of synapses in the sensory and association areas of the brain peak in childhood and decline thereafter ( A finding consistent with Maurer and Maurer’s interpretation is that adult synesthetes have greater structural connectivity (as reflected by patterns of white matter, the myelin coating on axons, described in Chapter 4) for different parts of the brain than non-synesthetes (Rouw & Scholte, 2007). Other brain imaging research has shown differences in gray matter (neurons) between different areas of the brains of synesthetes and non- synesthetes (Banissy et al., 2012). Much is still to be learned about the neuroscience of synesthesia, but the more we learn, the more complex the picture becomes. For example, a recent review of the neuroscience literature concluded that a network of brain areas, rather than just a single area, is involved in synesthesia  Ramachandran and his colleagues (Ramachandran & Brang,