中世纪世界生活手册（五）
十字军东征
基督徒、穆斯林和犹太人的利益，在中东和欧洲大地上进行的诸多十字军东征过程中急剧交融。从11世纪到14世纪，九支基督教军事远征队以十字架为号召，在大叙利亚（Greater Syria，1914年前为今叙利亚、黎巴嫩、以色列和约旦的名称）和埃及对穆斯林异教徒发动圣战。十字军在中东的目标是从穆斯林手中夺回被视为基督教圣地的城市，特别是耶路撒冷，并对抗马穆鲁克（从公元9世纪至16世纪之间服务于阿拉伯哈里发和阿尤布王朝苏丹的奴隶兵；随着哈里发的式微和阿尤布王朝的解体，他们逐渐成为强大的军事统治集团，并建立了自己的伯海里王朝与布尔吉王朝，统治埃及达三百年之久（1250年－1517年），在北印度13世纪也有他们建立的王朝）以及后来的奥斯曼土耳其帝国不断扩张的势力。在欧洲，十字军献出了他们的生命和财富，以摧毁法国的阿尔比十字军的异端势力，使东欧的普鲁士异教徒皈依，并消灭了西班牙和葡萄牙的穆斯林。
The interests of Christians, Muslims, and Jews converged dramatically during all the crusades fought in the Middle East and on European soil. Between the 11th and 14th centuries nine Christian military expeditions took up the cross as the rallying symbol of their holy war against the Muslim infidel in Greater Syria and Egypt. Crusader goals in the Middle East were to recapture cities considered sacred to Christianity, especially Jerusalem, from the Muslims and to counteract the expanding power of the Mamluks and subsequently the Ottoman Turkish Empire. In Europe crusaders dedicated their lives and fortunes to destroying the heresy of the Albigensians in France, converting Prussian heathens in eastern Europe, and eliminating the Muslims from Spain and Portugal.
十字军东征最初被称为朝圣之旅。朝圣是一种忏悔性的奉献行为，也是一种模仿基督的形式，即模仿基督的行为。十字军将自己设想为朝圣者和“基督的战士”（milites Christi）。他们背起十字架，追随基督（参看Mt. 10:38），愿意通过与异教徒作战来牺牲自己的生命，以赎回罪孽，就像基督牺牲自己的生命来救赎人类。
Crusades originally were called pilgrimages. A pilgrimage is an act of penitential devotion and a form of imitatio Christi, the imitation of Christ. Crusaders envisaged themselves as pilgrims and “soldiers of Christ” (milites Christi). They took up the cross and followed Christ (cf. Mt. 10:38), willing to sacrifice their lives through fighting the infidel in order to expiate sins, just as Christ had sacrificed his life to redeem humanity.
这种朝圣的意识形态和神圣的使命感使十字军东征有别于拜占庭时期对穆斯林的战争。具有讽刺意味的是，十字军东征始于拜占庭皇帝阿莱克修斯一世·科穆宁（1081-1118）向教皇乌尔巴诺二世（乌尔班二世，1088-99）提出的请求，即派遣远征军协助他与塞尔柱土耳其人作战。自八世纪以来，拜占庭人一直在与穆斯林军队交战，这是伊斯兰教扩张的第一个世纪。然而，对他们来说，这些对抗在意识形态上是传统的战争，与以前的敌人（如萨珊王朝的波斯人）的战争相类似。十字军朝圣是一种不同的秩序，它带来了精神和世俗的回报。教皇乌尔班二世在1095年的克莱芒会议上发表了振奋人心的讲话，承诺加入十字军的人“立即减免他们的罪孽”。作为朝圣者，十字军还享有教会的招待权以及对自身和财产的保护。
This ideology of pilgrimage and sense of holy mission differentiate the Crusades from the Byzantine wars against the Muslims. Ironically, the Crusades began with a request from the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Comnenos (r. 1081–1118) to Pope Urban II (r. 1088–99) to send mercenary troops to assist him in his battle against the Seljuk Turks. The Byzantines had been at war with the Muslim armies since the eighth century, the first century of Islamic expansion. Yet for them these confrontations were conventional wars ideologically comparable to those fought against previous enemies such as the Sassanid Persians. The crusade- pilgrimage was of a different order and wrought spiritual and mundane rewards. Urban II’s rousing speech at the Council of Clermont in 1095 promised the crusaders “immediate remission of their sins.” As pilgrims the crusaders also enjoyed the rights of hospitality and protection of self and property by the church.
物质方面的收获也即将到来。乌尔班二世的布道对侵扰西欧的社会暴力表示失望，基督教贵族们无视“上帝的和平”，为了个人的贪婪和利益而相互发动“非正义战争”，而不是对占领圣地的“野蛮圣像崇拜者”发动正义的战争。基督教征服者获得特许权，以封地或王国的形式持有被征服的土地，尽管有些士兵将他们赢得的财产遗赠给了教会。
Material gains were forthcoming as well. Urban’s sermon expressed dismay over the social violence that was infesting western Europe. Christian nobles were ignoring the “Peace of God” and waging “unjust wars” against each other for private greed and gain instead of fighting the just war against the “barbarian idolaters” occupying the Holy Land. Christian conquerors received charters to hold the conquered land as fiefdoms or kingdoms, although some soldiers bequeathed their newly won property to the church.
第一次十字军东征
教皇乌尔班二世在1095年的克莱芒会议上号召了第一次十字军东征，以确保朝圣者能自由进入耶路撒冷，并削弱塞尔柱土耳其人攻击拜占庭帝国的力量。在贵族布永的戈弗雷（Godfrey of Bouillon）（卒于1100年）、图卢兹的雷蒙德四世伯爵（卒于1105年）、诺曼底的罗伯特二世公爵（卒于1135年）、阿普利亚的坦克雷德（卒于1112年）以及阿莱克修斯一世的拜占庭军队的带领下，十字军于1098年占领了安提阿。
1099年，拉丁十字军征服了耶路撒冷，对数以万计的穆斯林和犹太人进行了大屠杀，以致血流成河。布永的戈弗雷成为圣墓的保卫者，戈弗雷的兄弟于1100年被加冕为耶路撒冷国王。20年来，基督教征服者在叙利亚和巴勒斯坦的海岸线上建立了十字军国家，其中第一个国家是安提阿东部的埃德萨伯国。在到达耶路撒冷之前，德意志十字军于1096年通过莱茵河谷进军，并威胁犹太人改变信仰，否则就会被屠杀。数以千计的犹太人要么被十字军杀害，要么集体自杀，他们的殉教行为后来在犹太教礼仪中被讴歌。
Pope Urban II proclaimed the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont in 1095 to secure free access to Jerusalem for pilgrims and to eliminate the power of Seljuk Turks attacking the Byzantine Empire. Led by the nobles Godfrey of Bouillon (d. 1100), Count Raymond IV of Toulouse (d. 1105), Duke Robert II of Normandy (d. 1135), Tancred of Apulia (d.1112), and the Byzantine forces of Alexios I, the crusaders captured Antioch in 1098. The Latin crusaders conquered Jerusalem in 1099, perpetrating a massacre of tens of thousands of Muslims and Jews such that rivers of blood flowed through the streets. Godfrey became defender of the Holy Sepulcher. Godfrey’s brother was crowned king of Jerusalem in 1100. For two decades Christian conquerors established Crusader States along the coastline of Syria and Palestine, the first of which was the County of Edessa, east of Antioch. Prior to reaching Jerusalem German crusaders marched through the Rhine Valley in 1096 and threatened the Jews with the choice of conversion or slaughter. Thousands died either murdered by the crusaders or in mass suicides, their martyrdoms later eulogized in Jewish liturgy.
第二次十字军东征
1144年埃德萨伯国落入土耳其人之手，促使教皇尤金三世（安日纳三世，1145-53年）于1147年召集第二次十字军东征。法国卡佩王朝国王路易七世（1137-80年）和德意志霍亨斯陶芬王朝国王康拉德三世（1125-52年）带领的军队都被塞尔柱土耳其人打败。新成立的熙笃会修道院院长格莱福的圣伯尔纳铎（Saint Bernard of Clairvaux，1090-1153）在德国宣扬的情绪化布道，无意中引发了莱茵地区的教徒对犹太人的再次屠杀。拜占庭统治者曼努埃尔一世（Manuel I Comnenos，1143-80年）将十字军国家安条克公国、埃德萨伯国和耶路撒冷王国纳入其保护范围。同时，教皇尤金三世也赋予其“伊比利亚的重建者”的地位。1147年，葡萄牙王国和英格兰的朝圣者通过联合行动，从穆斯林手中夺回了里斯本（葡萄牙）。
The fall of Edessa to the Turks in 1144 provoked Pope Eugene III (r. 1145–53) to call the Second Crusade in 1147. Led by the Capetian king Louis VII of France (r. 1137–80) and the Hohenstaufen king Conrad III of Germany (r. 1125–52), both armies were defeated by the Seljuk Turks. The emotive sermons that Saint Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153), abbot of the newly founded Cistercian monastic order, preached in Germany inadvertently triggered renewed massacres of Jews in the Rhineland. The Byzantine ruler Manuel I Comnenos (r. 1143–80) established a protectorate over the Crusader States of Antioch, Edessa, and Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Pope Eugene III had also granted crusader status to the Reconquest of Iberia. Lisbon (Portugal) was conquered from the Muslims in 1147 in a joint venture by Portuguese and English pilgrims.
第三次十字军东征
1187年，埃及阿尤布王朝的苏丹萨拉丁（Saladin）（1174-93年）占领了耶路撒冷，并占领了拉丁-拜占庭的大部分领土。这促使教皇格里高利八世（1187年）和他的继任者克莱门特三世（克莱孟三世，1187-91年）召集了1189-92年的第三次十字军东征。这次十字军东征是一次独特的拉丁行动，由英格兰的狮心王理查一世（1189-99年）
、法国的腓力二世（1180-1223年）和神圣罗马帝国皇帝腓特烈一世-巴巴罗萨（1155-90年）共同领导。
In 1187 Saladin, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt (r. 1174–93), captured Jerusalem and overran most of the Latin-Byzantine possessions. This motivated Pope Gregory VIII (r. 1187) and his successor, Clement III (r. 1187–91), to convoke the Third Crusade of 1189–92. This crusade was a uniquely Latin affair, jointly led by Richard I, Richard the Lionhearted, of England (r. 1189–99); Philip II of France (r. 1180–1223); and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa (r. 1155–90).
拜占庭皇帝伊萨克二世·安吉洛斯（Isaac II Angelos）（1185-95年，1203-04年在位）与萨拉丁密谋，阻挠腓特烈-巴巴罗萨从德国通过拜占庭，以换取帝国的安全。腓特烈在安条克溺水而亡，法军和英军之间缺乏补给和有效通信，而拜占庭人的背信弃义进一步导致了十字军东征的失败。尽管十字军夺取了阿卡，理查还是被迫向萨拉丁提出休战请求，将耶路撒冷留在了阿尤布王朝的统治之下。
The Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos (r. 1185–95, 1203–04) had conspired with Saladin to thwart Frederick Barbarossa’s passage from Germany through Byzantium in exchange for his empire’s safety. Frederick’s untimely death by drowning in Antioch, lack of provisions and failed communications between French and English troops, and Byzantine perfidy led to the failure of the crusade. Despite capturing Acre, Richard was forced to sue for a truce with Saladin, leaving Jerusalem under Ayyubid rule.
第四次十字军东征
教皇英诺森三世于1202年召集第四次十字军东征，试图重新夺回耶路撒冷。由于法国和英国处于战争状态，德国也陷入了与教皇的争端中，这次十字军东征是由法国、意大利和德国的伯爵和一部分贵族们推动的。意大利蒙特费拉特的博尼费斯伯爵（1207年去世）与威尼斯教区谈判达成协议，由威尼斯提供船只，将士兵运往埃及。作为拜占庭皇帝的敌人，该教区长于1204年策划了对君士坦丁堡的可怕洗劫行动，并随后在君士坦丁堡建立了拉丁王国。
Pope Innocent III called the Fourth Crusade in 1202 in an attempt to reconquer Jerusalem. With France and England at war and Germany embroiled in a dispute with the papacy, the crusade was undertaken by counts and nobles from France, Italy, and Germany. The Italian count Boniface of Montferrat (d. 1207) negotiated an agreement with the Venetian doge for Venice to supply ships to transport the soldiers to Egypt. The doge, an enemy of the Byzantine emperor, engineered the terrible sacking of Constantinople in 1204 and the subsequent establishment of the Latin Kingdom of Constantinople.
其他前往圣地的十字军
十字军东征在13世纪持续了整整一个世纪，从1204年开始到1291年结束。教皇英诺森三世在1215年的第四次拉特朗公会议上再次发出收复耶路撒冷的呼吁。第五次十字军东征（1217-21）由巴伐利亚、匈牙利和奥地利的军队领导，于1219年成功地征服了埃及的杜姆亚特，但在试图攻占开罗时遭遇了巨大的失败。被逐出教会的西西里岛的腓特烈二世召集了第六次十字军东征（1228-29），并通过谈判，单枪匹马地从穆斯林手中夺回了耶路撒冷。从1229年起，这座圣城一直在基督徒手中，直到1244年被马穆鲁克人征服。法国的路易九世（1226-70年）发动了第七次和第八次十字军东征（分别为1248-54年，1270年）。这两次针对埃及的大型十字军东征都失败了，拉丁国家慢慢地停止东征。英格兰的爱德华一世（1274-1307年）在1271年发动了第九次十字军东征，这将是收复耶路撒冷和遏制马穆鲁克苏丹势力的最后一次协同努力。1291年，最后一个基督教据点落入了看似不可战胜的马穆鲁克手中。
The Crusades continued throughout the 13th century, beginning in 1204 and ending in 1291. Pope Innocent III issued another call to recover Jerusalem at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. The Fifth Crusade (1217–21), headed by the armies of Bavaria, Hungary, and Austria, succeeded in conquering Damietta in Egypt in 1219 but suffered a massive defeat when they tried to take Cairo. The excommunicated emperor Frederick II of Sicily convoked the Sixth Crusade (1228–29) and single-handedly recovered Jerusalem from the Muslims by negotiation rather than warfare. The holy city remained in Christian hands from 1229 until its recovery by the Mamluks in 1244. Louis IX of France (r. 1226–70) launched the Seventh and Eighth Crusades (1248–54, 1270, respectively). These two large crusades directed against Egypt failed, and the Latin States were slowly overrun. Edward I of England (r. 1274– 1307) launched the Ninth Crusade in 1271 in what would be the last concerted effort to recover Jerusalem and contain the power of the Mamluk sultans. In 1291 the last Christian stronghold fell to the seemingly invincible Mamluks.
在1291年至1464年期间，十字军东征持续了近两个世纪。1464年，积极倡导十字军东征的教皇庇护二世去世。1396年，土耳其人在尼科波利斯击败了一支由基督教徒组成的大型远征军。
Crusades were fought thereafter for nearly two centuries between 1291 and 1464, the year Pope Pius II, a vigorous champion of crusades, died. The Turks defeated a large expedition of Christian forces at Nicopolis in 1396.
阿尔比根十字军东征（卡特里派十字军）
欧洲当地镇压异端的十字军与远征伊比利亚的十字军和夺回耶路撒冷的十字军在凶猛程度上相仿。英诺森三世于1198年登上教皇宝座后，宣布对卡特里派进行十字军东征，发起了阿尔比根十字军东征（1208-19）。卡特里派是一个由诺斯底二元论思想组成的异端教派，起源于11世纪的欧洲，他们视物质为污秽，相信耶稣只是神圣的精神，拒绝旧约，并拒绝圣礼和教皇的权威。他们苦行僧般的虔诚、贫穷、纯洁的生活方式，以及对使徒生活的魅力宣讲和对基督的模仿，为他们赢得了无数的崇拜者。卡特里派以法国南部的朗格多克为中心（阿尔比镇因阿尔比根十字军而得名），在西班牙和法国北部、意大利和德国也吸引了大量追随者。
Local European crusades suppressing heresy paralleled in ferocity the crusades against Islam in Iberia and against the Muslims to recapture Jerusalem. Upon ascending the papal throne in 1198, Innocent III declared a crusade against the Cathars, launching the Albigensian Crusade (1208–19). The Cathars were a heretical sect of Gnostic dualists, originating in 11thcentury Europe, who despised matter as filth, believed that Jesus was only divine spirit, rejected the Old Testament, and rejected the sacraments and papal authority. Their lifestyle of ascetic piety, poverty, purity, and charismatic preaching of the apostolic life and the imitation of Christ won them numerous adepts. The Cathars were centered in Languedoc in southern France—the town of Albi gave its name to the Albigensian Crusade—but attracted a significant following in northern Spain and France, Italy, and Germany.
法国贵族西蒙·德孟福尔（1218年）以极其残酷的手段领导了阿尔比根十字军，在整个普罗旺斯屠杀了数以万计的卡特里派教徒和卡特里派教徒的同情者。与此同时，西班牙奥斯马的圣道明（Saint Dominic Guzmán）（卒于1221年）于1216年成立了多米尼克修会，以正统的使徒理想为替代，对抗卡特里派。多米尼克修会（多明我会、道明会）的修士们管理着宗教裁判所，主导了对卡特里派教徒的逮捕、酷刑和处决，并在1321年将其消灭。阿尔比根十字军摧毁了法国南部的大部分地区和普罗旺斯的主要宫廷，在野蛮的屠杀之后，宫廷爱情和游吟诗人的文化，以及基督徒、犹太人和其他商人繁荣发展的城镇和市场都变成了燃烧的废墟。
The Albigensian Crusade, led with great cruelty by the French noble Simon of Montfort (1218), resulted in the massacre of tens of thousands of Cathars and Cathar sympathizers throughout Provence. Meanwhile, Saint Dominic Guzmán of Spain (d. 1221) founded the Order of Preachers in 1216 to counter the Cathars with an orthodox alternative to the apostolic ideal. Dominican friars ran the Inquisition that led to the arrest, torture, and execution of Cathars and culminated in their destruction in 1321. The Albigensian Crusade destroyed much of southern France and the major Provencal courts and after savage slaughter left the culture of courtly love and the troubadours and the towns and markets where Christians, Jews, and other traders had thrived in smoldering ruins.
波罗的海十字军东征（北方十字军战役）
波罗的海十字军东征开始于12世纪末，一直持续到16世纪初。他们在利沃尼亚、普鲁士、芬兰和立陶宛作战，主要角色是教皇及其拉丁传教士、神圣罗马帝国、斯堪的纳维亚和波兰贵族、德国和斯堪的纳维亚商人，间接角色还有拜占庭帝国。与圣地和西班牙的十字军东征相比，波罗的海十字军东征的目的更明显地是世俗上和精神上的。在1193年由教皇策肋定三世（1191-98年）召集的十字军东征开始时，利沃尼亚、普鲁士、芬兰和立陶宛的人民仍然是异教徒，而且大多数人从事海盗活动。天主教传教士遇到了激烈的抵抗，许多传教士及新增的信徒都被杀害了。罗马教会急于保护其传教士和皈依者，并担心波罗的海的异教徒可能会被永远诅咒为异教徒的错误，或在拜占庭人的压力下皈依东正教会。
The Baltic Crusades began at the end of the 12th century and carried on until the early 16th century. They were fought in Livonia, Prussia, Finland, and Lithuania, and the main protagonists were the papacy and its Latin missionaries, the Holy Roman Empire, Scandinavian and Polish nobility, German and Scandinavian merchants, and tangentially the Byzantine Empire. The aims of the Baltic Crusades were more overtly mundane as well as spiritual than those of the crusades in the Holy Land and Spain. At the onset of the crusades, convoked by Pope Celestine III (r. 1191–98) in 1193, the peoples of Livonia, Prussia, Finland, and Lithuania were still pagans, and most engaged in piracy. Catholic missionaries had met with stiff resistance, and many of them and their converts had been murdered. Rome was anxious to protect its missionaries and converts and feared that the Baltic pagans might be eternally damned to heathen error or persuaded to convert to the Orthodox Church under pressure from the Byzantines.
教会试图结束异教徒的野蛮做法：杀婴、人祭、圣像崇拜、海盗和公路抢劫。后者对试图将其商业市场扩展到巴尔干半岛的日耳曼和斯堪的纳维亚基督教商人构成了严重威胁。丹麦、瑞典和波兰的贵族也将巴尔干地区视为扩大其帝国的机会，尽管这会面临来自神圣罗马帝国和拜占庭帝国的威胁。新成立的军事组织也抓住机会，扩大对被征服领土的控制，并对东正教会发动十字军东征。对虔诚、政治权力和经济利益的追求在波罗的海十字军东征中凝聚在一起。
The church sought to put an end to the pagans’ barbaric practices of infanticide, human sacrifice, idol worship, and piracy and highway robbery. The latter posed a serious threat to Germanic and Scandinavian Christian merchants seeking to extend their commercial markets into the Balkans. The nobility of Denmark, Sweden, and Poland also looked to the Balkans as an opportunity to expand their empires, albeit at the expense of the Holy Roman and Byzantine Empires. Newly formed military orders also seized the opportunity to expand control over conquered territories and wage crusades against the Orthodox Church. The quest for piety, political power, and financial gain coalesced in the Baltic Crusades.
宗教军团的作用
十字军东征不仅是由非专业士兵进行的。11世纪出现了一批信仰基督的修道士士兵，他们通常只对教皇负责，其使命是从“异教徒”手中夺回“本属于”基督教的领土，并在国内击败基督的异端敌人。各种战斗修士组织在圣地和伊比利亚半岛建立了据点，他们在这两条战线上的十字军东征中发挥了关键作用。这些战士受个人贫困、虔诚、服从和贞洁的修道院誓言的约束，但他们在所征服的地区积累了大量的财富和土地，这种情况使他们中的许多人与当地的统治者发生了矛盾。
The crusades were not only fought by lay soldiers. A breed of monastic soldiers of Christ emerged in the 11th century, often answerable only to the pope, with the mission of recovering Christian lands from the “infidel” and defeating the heretical enemies of Christ at home. Various orders of warrior monks established strongholds in the Holy Land and the Iberian Peninsula, where they played a key role in the crusades on both fronts. Bound by monastic vows of personal poverty, piety, obedience, and chastity, these warrior soldiers nevertheless amassed vast sums of wealth and landholdings in the regions they conquered—a situation that would put many of them at odds with local rulers.
圣殿骑士团
基督和所罗门圣殿的穷苦同胞士兵，通常被称为圣殿骑士。圣殿骑士团大约在1118年第一次十字军东征之后于法国成立，以确保欧洲朝圣者安全地前往耶路撒冷。克莱尔沃（Clairvaux）修道院院长伯纳德（Bernard）亲自设计了他们的修道院规则，教皇的批准确保了该组织从虔诚的金钱和土地捐赠中获得了大量的财富。圣殿骑士团从他们位于耶路撒冷圣殿山的总部出发，作为十字军战士在圣地和西班牙作战，并监督一个庞大的金融网络，向朝圣者借钱并资助十字军东征。圣殿骑士团与犹太银行家和国际贸易商有职业上的交集，从事放贷活动，并在某些地方取代犹太人成为货币和信用证的主要持有人。他们巨大的权力和财富激起了法国国王腓力四世（1285-1314年）的愤怒和嫉妒，他指控他们为异端，将他们逮捕并施以酷刑，并迫使教皇克莱门特五世（克莱孟五世，1304-15）在1314年解散他们。
The Poor Fellow Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, more commonly known as the Knights Templar, were founded in France circa 1118 in the aftermath of the First Crusade to ensure the safe passage of European pilgrims to Jerusalem. The Cistercian abbot Bernard of Clairvaux personally designed their monastic rule, and papal sanction ensured that the order received vast sums of wealth from pious donations of money and land. From their headquarters on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, the Knights Templar fought as crusaders in the Holy Land and Spain and oversaw a vast financial network lending money to pilgrims and financing the Crusades. Knights Templar professionally intersected with Jewish bankers and international traders, engaged in moneylending, and in certain places replaced the Jews as the principal holders of currencies and letters of credit. Their enormous power and wealth stoked the ire and envy of the French king Philip IV the Fair (r. 1285– 1314), who accused them of heresy, had them arrested and tortured, and forced Pope Clement V (1304–15) to disband them in 1314.
医院骑士团
医院骑士团，又称罗德骑士团、马耳他骑士团、耶路撒冷圣约翰骑士团，是第一次十字军东征征服耶路撒冷后出现的另一个主要修道会。它大约于1100年在耶路撒冷成立，最初是为朝圣者提供的本笃会医院，但后来转变为一个军事组织。士兵修士们的任务是在圣地进行十字军东征，保护朝圣者和基督徒并为其提供医疗服务。医院骑士团得到了教皇的许可，将罗得岛作为一个主权修道院国家来统治。他们从圣殿骑士团的解散中受益，继承了大部分曾被他们控制的领土。
The Knights Hospitaller, also known as the Knights of Rhodes, the Knights of Malta, and the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, is the other major monastic order that emerged in the wake of the First Crusade’s conquest of Jerusalem. It was founded circa 1100 in Jerusalem originally as a Benedictine hospital for pilgrims but was subsequently transformed into a military order. The soldier monks divided their tasks between fighting the Crusades in the Holy Land and protecting and providing medical care to pilgrims and Christians. The Hospitallers received papal permission to rule Rhodes as a sovereign monastic state. They benefited from the dissolution of the Templars through inheriting most of the territories that had been under their control.
条顿骑士团
条顿骑士团是一个日耳曼修士军事组织，成立于1190年，最初是为了向在第三次十字军东征中受伤的德国朝圣者提供医疗护理。在13世纪初，他们的总督，即所谓的大总管，将他们的任务改为军事行动。他们的总部设在巴勒斯坦的阿卡，主要致力于保卫耶路撒冷和地中海之间的地区。在从神圣罗马帝国皇帝那里得到慷慨的特权和土地后，条顿骑士团在1226年古普鲁士人攻击神圣罗马帝国边界时，对德国皇帝和波兰公爵进行了救援。他们在击败古普鲁士人和随后的基督教化过程中发挥了突出作用。作为补偿，教皇和诺理三世（1216-27）允许他们将普鲁士作为一个主权修道院国家进行管理。
The Knights Teutonic was a Germanic monastic order founded in 1190 initially to provide hospital care to German pilgrims injured during the Third Crusade. In the early 13th century their governor, known as the grand master, changed their mandate into a military order. They were based in Acre, Palestine, and devoted their efforts mainly to defending the area between Jerusalem and the Mediterranean Sea. Having received generous privileges and land from the Holy Roman Emperor, the Teutonic Knights came to the rescue of the German emperor and the duke of Poland when their borders were attacked in 1226 by the Prussians. They played a prominent role in the defeat of the Prussians and their subsequent Christianization. As compensation Pope Honorius III (r. 1216–27) granted them permission to govern Prussia as a sovereign monastic state.
西班牙和葡萄牙的军事组织
卡拉特拉瓦骑士团于1164年被教皇亚历山大三世定为一个熙笃会军事组织。他们在对抗穆斯林时取得的骄人战绩为他们赢得了卡斯蒂利亚和阿拉贡国王的财政支持，并授予他们大量的土地财产。在阿拉尔科斯战役（1195年）中惨败于穆瓦希德王朝（阿尔摩哈德王朝）之手后，他们被迫放弃在卡拉特拉瓦的基地，但在决定性的拉斯纳瓦斯·德·托洛萨会战（1212年）中恢复了基地。卡拉特拉瓦参与了随后对西班牙穆斯林的征服，并在此过程中获得了大量的封建财产，成为被打败的穆斯林的封建领主。他们巨大的财富和对世俗王国的政治自治使他们在14和15世纪基督教王国之间的内战中成为各方势力竞相角逐的目标。
The Knights of Calatrava were confirmed as a Cistercian military order by Pope Alexander III in 1164. Their impressive successes against the Muslims earned them the financial support of the kings of Castile and Aragon, who granted them large landed estates. They were forced to abandon their base in Calatrava after the crushing defeat at the hands of the Almohads in the Battle of Alarcos (1195) but would recover it in the decisive Battle of Navas de Tolosa (1212). Calatrava participated in the ensuing conquests of Muslim Spain and in the process acquired vast feudal holdings and became feudal lords to the defeated Muslims. Their vast wealth and political autonomy from the secular kingdoms made them a target during the 14th- and 15- century civil wars between the Christian kingdoms.
圣地亚哥骑士团在1175年获得了教皇的认可，成为一个军事团体，为往返于他们的守护神——位于西班牙西北部加利西亚的德孔波斯特拉的圣詹姆斯的朝圣者提供保护。圣地亚哥骑士团还在通往德孔波斯特拉的朝圣路线上建立了医院，因此既保持了军事性质，又保持了好客的特点。骑士团还得到了敌对的莱昂王国、卡斯蒂利亚、阿拉贡和葡萄牙王国的承认与支持，他们在从穆斯林手中征服的领土上给予他们广泛的特权和封地。这种混合的效忠关系有时会使他们卷入基督教内部的战争，从而转移了对穆斯林的十字军东征的精力。
The Order of Santiago gained papal recognition as a military order in 1175 to provide protection to pilgrims traveling to and from the shrine of their patron, Saint James of Compostela, located in Galicia in northwest Spain. The Knights of Santiago also built hospitals along the pilgrimage route to Compostela and thus maintained both a military and a hospitaller character. The order also received recognition and support from the rival Kingdoms of León, Castile, Aragon, and Portugal, who granted them extensive privileges and fiefdoms in the territories conquered from the Muslims. This mixed allegiance would embroil them sometimes in the internal Christian wars, which diverted efforts from the crusade against the Muslims.
埃武拉圣玛丽亚修士团，后来被称为阿维兹（阿维斯）骑士团，成立于1146年，是模仿1128年在葡萄牙建立总部的圣殿骑士团而建立的一个修道院军事组织。阿维兹骑士团遵守熙笃会的规则，并致力于对穆斯林的军事战争。随着1250年重建工作的完成，阿维兹修士还在1383年葡萄牙对西班牙王国的战争中为其辩护，后来还参加了对休达（1413）和丹吉尔（1437）的穆斯林的军事远征行动。
The Brothers of Santa Maria de Évora, later known as the Order of Aviz, was founded in 1146 as an offshoot of the Knights Templar, who had established headquarters in Portugal two decades earlier. The Knights of Aviz observed the Cistercian rule and devoted their efforts to military warfare against the Muslims. With the completion of the Reconquest in 1250, the Aviz monks defended Portugal in its war against the Kingdom of Spain in 1383 and would later participate in the military expeditions against the Muslims in Ceuta (1413) and Tangier (1437).
利沃尼亚骑士团（宝剑利沃尼亚兄弟骑士团）
利沃尼亚骑士团于1202年由里加的阿尔伯特主教（利沃尼亚采邑主教）建立，作为圣殿骑士团的对应组织。他们在1236年与立陶宛和瑟米加利亚人的战斗中几乎全军覆没。幸存者加入条顿骑士团，成为一个独立的骑士团。他们与条顿骑士团一起在1290年之前征服了拉脱维亚以及爱沙尼亚和立陶宛的部分地区。在十字军战争期间，条顿骑士团曾两次试图为自己夺取权力，建立一个独立的修道院国家，第一次在特兰西瓦尼亚，该地在1211年成为匈牙利王国的一部分；第二次在1226年在波兰。他们被赶出特兰西瓦尼亚，继续对波兰、立陶宛和罗斯的诺夫哥罗德大公国发动战争。他们在1242年被罗斯人打败，结束了日耳曼人和教皇使东正教罗斯皈依天主教的愿望。1410年，条顿骑士团在与波兰-立陶宛联盟的战斗中遭受了最严重的失败。
The Livonian Brothers of the Sword were founded in 1202 by the prince-bishop of Livonia as a counterpart to the Knights Templar. They were nearly annihilated in 1236 in a battle against Lithuanian and Semigallian tribes. The survivors joined the Knights Teutonic as an autonomous order. Together with the Knights Teutonic they would conquer Latvia and part of Estonia and Lithuania by 1290. Twice the Teutonic Knights tried to grab power for themselves during the course of crusader wars and establish an independent monastic state, first in Transylvania, then part of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1211, and then in Poland in 1226. They were driven out of Transylvania and continued to wage war against Poland, Lithuania, and the Russian Novgorod Feudal Republic. Their defeat by the Russians in 1242 put an end to Teutonic and papal aspirations to convert Orthodox Russia to Catholicism. The Teutonic Knights suffered their most serious defeat in 1410 against a Polish-Lithuanian coalition.
宗教裁判所
除了消灭异端的十字军东征外，基督教会还建立了一个有效的异端司法起诉机制，即宗教裁判所。基督教领导人认为，要消除腐败、污染、异端精神的诱惑，无论是犹太教、穆斯林还是本教，只要偏离了主流的教会教义，就必须使用最有力的武力来解决问题。持有异端思想的基督徒对教会权威尤其令人不安。那些否认原罪、放弃三位一体、拒绝felix culpa（“幸运的堕落”，即亚当和夏娃堕落并被逐出伊甸园，导致基督降临），以及直接接近上帝的基督徒威胁着教会的等级制度和表达基督教教义的礼仪。当然，如果没有罪的概念，那么整个强调忏悔、请求赦免、给予赦免、去朝圣和讨伐都是无用和徒劳的。此外，如果一个人可以直接与上帝接触，那么他就不需要支付任何财物来维护昂贵、豪华的教堂；豪华的建筑；和人数庞大的神职人员群体。
In addition to crusades to control heresy, the Christian Church established an effective juridical prosecution of heresy called the Inquisition. Christian leaders believed the strongest hand and rod were necessary to eliminate the seductive allure of corrupting, polluting, heretical spirits, whether Jewish, Muslim, or Christian, who strayed from the prevailing church doctrine. Christians who held heretical ideas were especially vexing to church authority. Christians who denied original sin, abjured the Trinity, rejected the felix culpa (“fortunate fall,” or Adam and Eve’s fall and expulsion from the Garden of Eden that led to the coming of Christ), and directly approached God threatened the Christian hierarchy of the church and also the liturgy expressing Christian dogma. Certainly, if there was no concept of sin, then the whole emphases on confession, request for absolution, granting of indulgences, going on pilgrimages, and crusading were useless and futile. Moreover, if one could contact God directly, one did not need to support an expensive, luxurious church; its lavish buildings; and its powerful clergy.
宗教裁判所通过结合教会和国家的权力而蓬勃发展。霍亨斯陶芬皇帝腓特烈二世在13世纪通过一项反对异端的世俗诏书加强了教会的意图。腓特烈皇帝反对异端的法令使教会和国家之间的恶性团结合法化，以杜绝所有宗教亵渎者。不久，教皇格里高利建立了一个由多米尼加和方济各会审讯员组成的法庭，他们同时也是检察官、法官和陪审团，但要负责拯救被告的灵魂。
The Inquisition thrived by combining the powers of church and state. The Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick II of Sicily strengthened the intentions of the church with a secular edict against heretics in the 13th century. Emperor Frederick’s Decree on Heretics legalized the pernicious unity between church and state to stamp out all blasphemers. Soon thereafter Pope Gregory established a tribunal of Dominican and Franciscan inquisitors who were simultaneously prosecutors, judges, and juries. Yet they also were responsible for saving the souls of the defendants.
宗教裁判所法庭
只有死亡才被认为是对教会异端的适当赎罪，只有死亡才是对世俗叛乱的适当惩罚。对于宗教裁判所来说，要消灭异端，将异端等同于叛国罪是非常有用的，而叛国罪作为一种危害国家的世俗罪行，随后被转移到宗教裁判所法庭。审问者获得了准世俗的权力。教会宣布了法律判决，然后，它将被定罪的异教徒移交给世俗的最终惩罚。托马斯·德·托尔克马达（1420-98），卡斯蒂利亚和阿拉贡的大法官，是一位禁欲主义的多米尼加修士，尤其因其无情的残酷性和可怕酷刑的独创性而令人恐惧。
Only death was considered fit atonement for ecclesiastical heresy. Only death was fit punishment for secular treason. For the Inquisition to extirpate heresy it was useful to equate heresy with high treason, which, as a secular crime against the state, was then transferred to the Inquisition tribunal. The inquisitor acquired quasi-secular authority. The church pronounced the legal verdict. Then it turned over the convicted heretic for final secular punishment. Thomas de Torquemada (1420–98), the archinquisitor of Castile and Aragon, was an ascetic Dominican monk especially feared for his ruthless cruelty and terrible ingenuity in torture.
被告进入宗教裁判所法庭时被推定为有罪，而不是无罪。只有当被告能够证明他或她与证人之间存在致命的敌意时，才能驳斥异端的证据。当被胁迫作证的证人往往是被告的配偶或子女时，这是一个很难证明的指控。任何有罪的证人都是可以接受的，包括道听途说的证词，以便在定罪前向教会提供异端的“证据”。
The defendant entered the Inquisition court with the presumption of guilt, not innocence. Only if the defendant could prove deadly enmity between himself or herself and a witness could evidence of heresy be refuted. That was a tough charge to prove when the witness coerced into testifying often was the accused’s spouse or child. Any witness of guilt was acceptable, including hearsay testimony, to afford the church “proof” of heresy before condemnation.
被认为值得怜悯的、忏悔的异端会受到各种肉体惩罚，从简单的鞭打、殴打赤身裸体的囚犯，到长途朝圣，如从西班牙到耶路撒冷。其他忏悔的异教徒被强迫戴着十字架，这种异端的标志将他们从基督教社区中排斥出去，使他们无法谋生。贴在房屋上的异端标记一般会导致该异教徒的财产被没收。异教徒的后代三代人都不能担任公职，也不能接受其他合法的遗产。作为惩罚的监禁从简单的监禁到可怕的活埋不等。
Repentant heretics thought worthy of mercy were punished with a variety of corporal penalties ranging from simple scourging, beating of a naked prisoner, to walking on long pilgrimages, such as to Jerusalem from Spain. Other repentant heretics wore the cross on their clothes, a sign of heresy ostracizing them from the Christian community and making them incapable of earning a living. The heretic’s mark affixed to a house generally led to confiscation of the property. Descendants of a heretic for three generations were prevented from holding public office and from receiving otherwise legal inheritances. Imprisonment as punishment ranged from simple incarceration to the horrific living grave.
在13世纪，焚烧成为对异端的合法处决方式。阿拉贡的彼得二世可能在神学家的建议下，赋予了烧死异端的惩罚以法律地位。霍亨斯陶芬的腓特烈二世大力提倡火刑。13世纪中叶，威尼斯的教区长们在他们的就职宣誓中庄严地发誓要烧死异教徒。作为整个基督教世界的官方处决方法，1231年的教皇法规要求普遍使用火刑。甚至连早已死去的异教徒的骨头也被挖出来，扔进火堆，据说是为了防止异教徒在审判日复活。
In the 13th century burning became the legal execution of choice for heresy. Peter II of Aragon granted legal status to the penalty of burning of heretics, probably on the advice of theologians. Frederick II of Hohenstaufen vigorously promoted death by fire. Mid-13thcentury doges of Venice vowed solemnly in their oath of office to burn heretics. Established as the official execution method throughout Christendom, the Papal Statutes of 1231 demanded that death by fire be used universally. Even bones of long dead heretics were exhumed and consigned to the pyres, supposedly to prevent resurrection of the heretics on the day of judgment.
西班牙宗教裁判所
皈依基督教的犹太人和穆斯林被称为新基督徒、改宗犹太人、马拉诺（意为“猪”）或摩里斯科人，因此，他们受宗教裁判所的管辖。新基督徒受到民事限制和种族偏见，例如被指责为有“不洁的血液”。“老基督徒”怀疑他们是隐蔽的犹太社会攀附者，他们只是为了逃避犹太人的受压迫状况而皈依。教皇尼古拉五世（1447-55年）谴责了托莱多会议1449年禁止改宗犹太人担任公职的诏书，但西班牙国王无视教皇的诏书。1460年至1469年间，教皇西斯笃四世主持了西班牙宗教裁判所，以结束“背道而驰”的改宗犹太人的犹太化习俗，他们被指控保留了犹太习俗，如禁止食用猪肉。与拒绝皈依基督教的犹太人一样，作为“复发犹太人”的改宗犹太人也是被烧死在火刑柱上的顽固异端分子或失效异端分子。处决仪式是auto-da-fé（葡萄牙语，“信仰的行为”）。在做完弥撒和布道后，异教徒被移交给世俗当局公开烧死，同时被绑在一根高高竖起的木柱上，木柱底部有火，被设计用来慢慢折磨身体，直到被烧死。
Jews and Muslims who converted to Christianity were called New Christians, conversos, marranos (meaning “swine”), or moriscos and, as such, were subject to the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. New Christians suffered civil restrictions and racial prejudice, exemplified by the denomination of having “impure blood.” “Old Christians” suspected them of being crypto-Jewish social climbers who had only converted in order to escape from the oppressed condition of the Jews. Pope Nicholas V (r. 1447–55) condemned the Council of Toledo’s edict of 1449 banning conversos from public office, but the Spanish kings ignored the papal bull. Between 1460 and 1469 Pope Sixtus IV presided over the Spanish Inquisition to put an end to the Judaizing practices of “backsliding” conversos who were accused of retaining Jewish customs such as the prohibition against consuming pork. Like the Jews who refused to convert to Christianity, conversos as “relapsing Jews” were among the obstinate heretics or lapsed heretics who were burned at the stake. The execution ceremony was the auto-da-fé (Portuguese, “act of faith”). After a mass and a sermon the heretic was transferred to secular authority for public burning while tied to an elevated upright wooden pillar with a fire built around its base, contrived to torture the body slowly until it was consumed.
异教徒戴着模仿主教高而带有深裂纹的帽子的黄色帽檐，穿着San Benito——一种黄色或黑色的祭祀麻布衣，通常有怪异的装饰。对异教徒的处决是一个公开的庆祝活动，通常在一个神圣的日子或一个被定为节日的日子举行，以确保最大的公众参与度并树立榜样。审讯的一个目的是通过恐怖仪式来进行威慑，通过酷刑和焚烧，大量的基督教异端分子、犹太人和女巫被处决。Marranos（皈依基督教但仍是秘密犹太人）和moriscos（皈依基督教但仍是秘密穆斯林的摩尔人或穆斯林）在西班牙宗教裁判所期间也死得很惨。
The heretic wore a yellow miter imitating a bishop’s tall, deeply cleft hat and a san benito, a yellow or black ceremonial sackcloth garment, usually grotesquely decorated. Execution of a heretic was a public celebration customarily held on a holy day or a day made into a holiday to assure the greatest public participation and to set an example. An inquisitional purpose was deterrence by terror. By means of torture and auto-da-fé, large numbers of Christian heretics, Jews, and witches were exterminated. Marranos (Jews who had converted to Christianity but remained secret Jews) and moriscos (Moors or Muslims who had converted to Christianity but remained secret Muslims) also died horribly during the Spanish Inquisition.
《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）
By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones
未完待续！
