【简译】黑斯廷斯之战（Battle of Hastings）
The Battle of Hastings in south-east England on 14 October 1066 saw the defeat of the Anglo-Saxon king Harold II (r. Jan-Oct 1066) by the invading Norman army led by William, Duke of Normandy (reigned from 1035). After a day of heavy fighting, the Norman cavalry eventually proved more effective than the Anglo-Saxon infantry.
1066年10月14日，英格兰东南部发生了黑斯廷斯战役，盎格鲁-撒克逊国王哈罗德二世（1066年1月至10月在位）被诺曼底公爵威廉（1035年起在位）率领的入侵军队击败。经过一天的激烈战斗，事实证明诺曼骑兵比盎格鲁撒克逊步兵更有战斗力。
William claimed the throne of England had been promised to him by Harold's predecessor, Edward the Confessor (r. 1042-1066) and he had invaded England to take by force the kingdom he considered rightfully his. Harold was killed in the battle, according to tradition, hit by an arrow to the eye and then hacked to pieces as he fell. The victor would be crowned king of England on Christmas Day of the same year and, over the next five years, his conquest of England would earn him the title of William the Conqueror. Hastings brought an end to 500 years of Anglo-Saxon rule and innumerable political, religious, and cultural changes over the coming decades as the Norman elite installed themselves throughout their new kingdom, setting up castles and creating such innovations as the Domesday Book.
威廉声称英格兰的王位是由哈罗德的前任忏悔者爱德华（Edward the Confessor，1042-1066年）承诺给他的，威廉决定入侵英格兰，以武力夺取他认为理所当然属于他的王国。根据记载，哈罗德在战斗中丧生，他的眼睛被箭射中，后来倒地时被肢解。胜利者于同年圣诞节加冕为英格兰国王，在接下来的五年里，他对英格兰的征服为他赢得了征服者威廉的称号。黑斯廷斯结束了500年的盎格鲁-撒克逊统治，在接下来的几十年里，随着诺曼精英们在新王国里安营扎寨，建立城堡，并创造了诸如《末日审判书》等创新成果，政治、宗教和文化也发生巨变。
哈罗德·戈德温森
In 1066, the momentous year which would change English history, Harold Godwinson had only just become king of England. Formally the earl of Wessex, Harold was crowned on 6 January following the death of Edward the Confessor who had no heir. Harold had acquired the throne in unclear circumstances although Edward, on his deathbed, had personally nominated Harold as his successor. Harold was the foremost military leader in the kingdom and had built his reputation on his successful campaigns in Wales in 1063-4.
1066年是改变英国历史的重要一年，哈罗德·戈德温森(Harold Godwinson)刚刚成为英格兰国王哈罗德二世 (Harold II)。在忏悔者爱德华去世后，哈罗德正式成为威塞克斯伯爵，并于 1 月 6 日加冕，爱德华没有留下任何继承人。哈罗德是在不明朗的情况下登上王位的，尽管爱德华临终前亲自指定他为继任者。哈罗德是王国中最重要的军事领导人，他于1063-4年在威尔士的成功战役中声名鹊起。
诺曼底公爵
Meanwhile, across the English Channel, William, the Duke of Normandy had other plans. William claimed that Edward had, in fact, promised him the throne back in 1051. The Norman also claimed that a visit by Harold in 1064 had either repeated Edward's offer or, thanks to the Norman securing the release of Harold after his capture by Count Guy of Ponthieu, the Englishman had promised William he would be his vassal and not obstruct his claim to the throne. This is the Norman view of the events leading up to 1066.
与此同时，在英吉利海峡对面，诺曼底公爵威廉另有计划。威廉声称，事实上，爱德华早在1051年就向他承诺过王位。诺曼人还声称，在哈罗德于 1064 年访问时，他要么重申了爱德华的提议，要么向威廉承诺他将成为他的附庸，但不会阻止他继承王位，因为哈罗德在被居伊·庞蒂厄伯爵俘虏后被诺曼人释放。这就是诺曼人对导致1066年的事件的看法。
The Anglo-Saxon sources have an alternative version, well, actually three scenarios: Harold's trip to Normandy never took place, if it did it was merely an accident of the weather, or he merely went to Normandy in order to secure the release of some Anglo-Saxon prisoners. Finally, the English maintained after Hastings that even if the Normans were right and Harold had made such a promise of vassalage to William, it having been made while held captive made it invalid. The modern scholarly consensus is that William's claim to the English throne was a slight one but, as so often in history, such niceties as promises and oaths of loyalty meant very little compared to victory on the battlefield. Whatever William's self-justification might have been, he was intent on invading England and he made extensive preparations to do so in the summer of 1066.
盎格鲁-撒克逊人的资料有另一个版本，事实上，有三种可能的情况：哈罗德的诺曼底之行从未发生过，如果发生了也只是天气意外，或者他去诺曼底只是为了确保释放一些盎格鲁-撒克逊的囚犯。最后，英国人在黑斯廷斯之后坚持认为，即使诺曼人是对的，而且哈罗德曾向威廉作出过这样的附庸承诺，但由于是在被囚禁期间作出的，所以它是无效的。现代学者的共识是，威廉对英国王位的要求是微不足道的，但正如历史上经常发生的那样，与战场上的胜利相比，诸如承诺和忠诚的誓言这样的细枝末节意义微不足道。不管威廉的自我辩解是什么，他一心想要入侵英格兰，并在1066年夏天为此做了大量准备。
哈拉尔·哈德拉达和托斯提·葛温森
As if the story of 1066 was not complicated enough, there was a third player in the deadly game for who would win the kingdom of England. King Harald Hardrada, aka Harald III of Norway (r. 1046-1066), had just as dubious a claim to Harold Godwinson's crown as William had but, like the Norman duke, he well knew that a strong army would more than make up for the flimsiness of his legal rights.
仿佛1066年的故事还不够复杂，在这场关于谁将赢得英格兰王国的致命游戏中还有第三位参与者。挪威国王哈拉尔·哈德拉达，又称哈拉尔三世（1046-1066年），与威廉一样对哈罗德·戈德温森的王位充满争议，但是，和诺曼公爵一样，他很清楚，一支强大的军队可以弥补他法律权利的不足之处。
Hardrada was assisted by Tostig, the Earl of Northumbria, brother and great rival of Harold II. Tostig's harsh rule had caused a serious revolt in Northumbria in 1065, and he was consequently stripped of his title and banished out of harm's way to Flanders. Tostig did not take this treatment well, and his ships harried the southern and eastern coasts of England. Escaping to Scotland, Tostig eventually ended up in Norway, where he saw Hardrada as the ticket to wresting the throne from his brother.
哈德拉达得到了诺森比亚伯爵托斯蒂格的帮助，他是哈罗德二世的兄弟和劲敌。托斯蒂格的严酷统治在1065年引起了诺森比亚的严重叛乱，因此他被剥夺了头衔，并被放逐到佛兰德斯，远离了危险。托斯蒂格对这种待遇并不满意，他的船只骚扰了英格兰的南部和东部海岸。逃到苏格兰后，托斯蒂格最终到了挪威，在那里他在哈德拉达看到了从他兄弟手中夺取王位的机会。
Hardrada amassed an invasion fleet of perhaps around 300 ships, although some estimates go as high as 500. His army may have numbered around 12,000 warriors. Landing off the north-east coast of England near the mouth of the River Tyne on 8 September, Hardrada was there joined by a small fleet of perhaps 12 ships commanded by Tostig. From there the two fleets sailed south and eventually landed at Ricall, just 16 km (10 miles) from the key city of York. The threat to Harold Godwinson was self-evident but, timed as it was just when William was planning to invade in the south, the Anglo-Saxon king's crown was now in real danger.
哈德拉达为入侵集结了一支约有 300 艘船的舰队，尽管有些估计高达500艘。他的军队可能有大约12000名战士。。9 月 8 日，哈德拉达在英格兰东北部靠近泰恩河口的地方登陆，在那里他与托斯蒂格率领的一支由大约 12 艘船组成的小型舰队会合。两支舰队从那里向南航行，最终在里卡尔（Ricall）登陆，距离关键城市约克（York）仅16公里（10英里）。对哈罗德·戈德温森的威胁是显而易见的，但由于威廉从南方入侵的计划恰逢其时，盎格鲁-撒克逊国王的王位正处于真正的危险之中。
富尔福德门和斯坦福桥
The first of the three major battles of 1066 was at Fulford Gate, an uncertain location somewhere near York. There, on 20 September, an Anglo-Saxon army led by Eadwine, earl of Mercia, and Morcar, the earl of Northumbria, clashed with Hardrada's army. The king of Norway was victorious but Harold was already on his way north with a second army which included his elite force of up to 3,000 housecarls (aka huscarls, professional armoured troops).
1066年三大战役中的第一场发生在富尔福德门，这是一个靠近约克的未定地点。9月20日，一支由麦西亚伯爵埃德温和诺森比亚伯爵莫卡率领的盎格鲁-撒克逊军队与哈德拉达的军队交战。挪威国王取得了胜利，但哈罗德已经率领第二支军队北上，其中包括他的约 3,000 名轻骑兵（负责保护国王的专业军队）的精锐部队。
On 25 September Harold's army met Hardrada's force at Stamford Bridge, a wide meadow somewhere to the east of the River Derwent. Hardrada's men were caught by surprise as they were expecting that day to negotiate the release of hostages from York after the city's capitulation the day before. The invaders thus had the distinct disadvantage of being without their mail armour coats - they had left them in their camp following the victory celebrations after Fulford Gate. The fighting was over within a day, and both Hardrada and Tostig were killed. The battle was a complete victory for Harold, with the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recording that there were only enough survivors from the invading army to fill 24 ships, which sailed back home under the command of Hardrada's son, Olaf. Harold had seen off one of the players for his crown but it was the more dangerous of his two rivals who now had to be faced in the south.
9月25日，哈罗德的军队在德文特河以东某处的宽阔草地斯坦福桥与哈德拉达的军队会合。这让哈德拉达的手下感到惊讶，因为他们预计当天会就前一天投降后从约克市释放人质进行谈判。因此，入侵者的明显劣势是发现自己没有他们的盔甲，在富尔福德门庆祝胜利后将他们留在营地。战斗持续了不到一天，哈德拉达和托斯蒂格都在战斗中丧生。这场战斗对哈罗德来说是一场巨大的胜利，《盎格鲁-撒克逊编年史》记载，入侵军队的幸存者勉强装满了 24 艘船，这些船在哈德拉达的儿子奥拉夫的率领下驶回了家。哈罗多击败了他王冠的竞争者之一，但现在他不得不面对他在南方的两个对手中更危险的一个。
侵略者与捍卫者
Throughout the summer William had been busy amassing a fleet on the northern coast of France near Saint-Valéry-sur-Somme. A contemporary Norman source puts the total number of ships at 776, but this is likely an exaggeration. The Norman warriors were motivated by the promise of booty and lands in the conquered territory but they were also paid by William during the summer preparation period. The total force is unknown, but most historians suggest a figure of 5-8,000 men, which included 1-2,000 cavalry.
威廉整个夏天都在努力在法国北海岸的索姆河畔圣瓦莱里附近组建一支庞大的舰队。当时的诺曼史料显示船只总数为 776 艘，但这个数字很可能被夸大了。诺曼士兵的动机是被征服领土上的战利品和土地的承诺，但他们在准备期间也收到了夏季薪水。部队总数未知，但大多数历史学家认为这个数字在 5,000 到 8,000 人之间，其中包括 1,000 或 2,000 名骑兵部队。
Harold knew of the impending Norman invasion and had prepared to meet it, but he had trouble keeping his own force together. The English army had already been in the field for over three months, and by harvest time men had to return to their farms where everyone was needed to ensure there would be enough corn for the coming year. Bad weather stalled William's plans - or perhaps he was cannily waiting for his opponents to disband - and Harold returned to London in the first week of September. Then came news of Hardrada's invasion in the north and the defeat at Fulford Gate. Harold's march and victory at Stamford Bridge, although significant, was only the first act of a two-act tragedy for the English king.
哈罗德知道即将到来的诺曼入侵并为此做好了准备，但难以将他的部队集中在一起。英军已经离家三个多月了，他们的士兵必须在收获季节之前返回农场，每个人都需要确保来年有足够的粮食。恶劣的天气推迟了威廉的计划——或者他可能在狡猾地等待他的对手解散——于是哈罗德在 9 月的第一个星期回到了伦敦。随后传来了哈德拉达从北方入侵和富尔福德门战败的消息。哈罗德在斯坦福桥的进军和胜利虽然意义重大，但对英国国王来说只是两幕悲剧的第一幕。
On 28 September 1066, William and his invasion army landed at Pevensey in Sussex, southern England, where there was a good harbour and the added advantage of an old Roman fort which, refortified by William, provided some protection for the army's camp. The Normans would not have wondered where Harold was as they already had intelligence of Hardrada's invasion in the north. What William could not have known, though, was which king had won the Battle of Stamford Bridge and who his opponent might be. Then news came of Harold's victory and that he was marching south. Harold arrived in London on 6 October and mustered his army, gathering at Caldebec Hill, 13 km (8 miles) north of Hastings, on the 13th.
1066年9月28日，威廉和他的入侵军队在英格兰南部苏塞克斯郡的佩文西（Pevensey）登陆，那里有一个良好的港口，还有一个由威廉重新加固的古罗马堡垒，为军队的营地提供一些保护。诺曼人不必怀疑哈罗德在哪里，因为他们已经有了哈德拉达在北方入侵的情报。不过，威廉不可能知道哪个国王赢得了斯坦福桥战役，以及他的对手可能是谁。这时传来了哈罗德的胜利和他正在向南进军的消息。哈罗德于10月6日抵达伦敦，并于13日在黑斯廷斯以北13公里（8英里）的卡尔德贝克山集结军队。
Harold's force included his elite housecarls and the general levy or fyrd, less well-trained troops supplied by each shire of the kingdom. Some sources, seeking to explain either the defeat or victory depending on the writer's loyalties, state that the Anglo-Saxon army was smaller than that of the Normans because Harold had not had time to muster troops from all of the shires. In contrast, other writers claim Harold's army was the bigger of the two. Given the closeness of the battle, though, it seems likely that both sides were more or less equal in size. One persistent criticism from medieval writers is that Harold mobilised too soon, perhaps deliberately enticed to do so by William's orders to ravage the territories of the south-east coast, Harold's personal estates.
哈罗德的部队包括精锐部队、轻骑兵和普通步兵（或民兵），即由王国的每个郡提供的训练有素的部队。一些消息来源试图根据作者的亲和力寻找胜利或失败的解释，声称盎格鲁撒克逊军队比诺曼军队规模小，因为哈罗德没有时间从所有郡集结军队。不管怎么说，在双方战果相同的情况下，双方的体量很可能差不多。对中世纪作家最一致的批评之一是，哈罗德太早动员了他的军队，这也许是威廉和他的命令故意引诱，破坏英格兰东南海岸的领土，这些领土是哈罗德的个人领地。
战 斗
The two armies met on 14 October 1066, William's force having advanced first to reach Harold's camp early in the morning. Harold's army, perhaps caught a little by surprise at the Normans' first move, took up position on a low rise, 'hammer-head ridge', which was protected on the sides by woods and in front by a stream and marshy ground. William's forces took up position to the south of the ridge in three infantry divisions: (from the left) Bretons, Normans, and French, all with a line of archers and a number of crossbowmen in front and the cavalry held in reserve at the rear.
1066 年 10 月 14 日，两军相遇，威廉的部队首先前进，在清晨到达哈罗德的营地。哈罗德的军队也许对诺曼人的第一次行动有点措手不及，他们在一座小山上占据阵地，形状像锤头，两侧有树林保护，前面有溪流和沼泽地。威廉的部队在山脊的南部占据了三个步兵师的位置：（从左边开始）布列塔尼人、诺曼人和法国人，前面都有一排弓箭手和弩兵，骑兵则在后面待命。
Harold's warriors were typically armed with a sword, large axe, or long spear, and the better equipped (and front ranks) wore a chain mail coat. Further protection was provided by a conical helmet with a nose guard and a round or kite-shaped shield. There would have been some contingents of missile throwers who launched javelins, arrows, stone hammers, clubs, and slingshots at the enemy before the other warriors moved forward as a unit with shields held close together to create a 'shield-wall'. The next stage would have been more chaotic, with small fighting groups and duels predominating. A common tactic was to use pairs of soldiers, one wielding with both hands a broad-bladed axe and another soldier with a sword and shield with the job of protecting the axeman who could not carry a shield. The Normans, in contrast, favoured cavalry with armoured riders using close-order charges and lances braced under the arm to break up the enemy infantry formations. The Normans also had both bowmen and crossbowmen, something the Anglo-Saxon army probably lacked, at least in significant numbers.
哈罗德的战士们通常装备一把剑、一把大斧或一把长矛，装备最精良的（和前线）身穿链甲。带护鼻器和圆形或三角形盾牌的锥形头盔提供了额外的保护。还会有一些特遣队向敌人投掷射弹，例如标枪、箭、石锤、狼牙棒和投石器，然后其他战士排成队形前进，他们的盾牌靠在一起形成一道保护墙。下一阶段会更加混乱，以小团体决斗和战斗为主。一种常见的策略是使用成对的士兵，一个双手挥舞着一把宽斧头，另一个手持剑和盾牌，后者的任务是用斧头保护士兵。他不能携带盾牌。相比之下，诺曼人偏爱骑兵，装甲骑兵的手臂下夹着长矛，他们以紧凑的单位冲锋以打破敌人的步兵防线。诺曼人也有弓箭手和弩手，盎格鲁-撒克逊军队可能缺乏这些，至少数量不多。
The Normans first launched a barrage of arrows, with the Anglo-Saxons responding by hurling a hail of stone axes at the enemy infantry as it tried to climb the ridge. The Norman cavalry was then sent in but was hampered by the terrain and slope so that they, too, were repelled by the Saxon shield wall. At one dramatic moment, a cry went up amongst the Normans that William had been struck down. This could have turned the battle as many an army in the Middle Ages had deserted the field once their commander had fallen. William, however, was unhurt, and he raised his visor and rode amongst his men to show that he was still alive and in command of the situation.
诺曼人以齐射箭开始进攻，盎格鲁-撒克逊人以石斧雨还击试图爬上山丘的敌方步兵。诺曼人的骑兵随后被派上战场，但受到地形和坡度的阻碍，他们也被撒克逊人的盾墙击退。在一个戏剧性的时刻，诺曼人中传出了威廉被击倒的呼声。这可能会扭转战局，因为在中世纪，许多军队在他们的指挥官倒下后就放弃了战场。然而，威廉并没有受伤，他举起面罩，穿梭于他的军队中间，表明他仍然活着，并且在指挥着局势。
A number of the Anglo-Saxons, encouraged by the retreat of the Norman cavalry, then raced after them down the hill, but once on lower ground and losing their formation, they were cut down by the Norman horseman as they reverse-charged. Seeing the success of this, William ordered a further two feigned charges and retreats up to the ridge and back again, both times luring the enemy into a pursuit and ending in a successful counter-attack on flatter ground more suitable for the horses.
一些盎格鲁-撒克逊人受到诺曼人骑兵撤退的鼓励，从山上追了下来，但一旦到了低处，失去了队形，他们就被诺曼人的骑兵在反向冲锋中砍倒。看到这样的成功，威廉又下令向山上进行了两次假装冲锋，然后再退回来，两次都引诱敌人追击，最后在更适合骑兵的平地上成功反击。
哈罗德国王之死
The fighting had now been raging for several hours, an unusually long time for a medieval battle. However, the superiority of the Norman cavalry against the Anglo-Saxon infantry was gradually winning the day, and now that their numbers were reduced, there were not enough Anglo-Saxons to defend the ridge. It was at this point that the depleted number of the best-trained troops, the housecarls (following the Battle at Stamford Bridge), must surely have been a telling factor. In a final cavalry charge, Harold and other Saxon leaders, including the king's brothers Gurth and Leofwine were killed. Harold's death, at least in tradition, was caused first by an arrow to the eye, then he was knocked over by a cavalry charge, and finally hacked to pieces by Norman swords as he lay prone on the ground. The remaining Anglo-Saxons fought a valiant rearguard action as they retreated to a nearby hill, the Malfosse, but they were eventually wiped out, and total victory was William's.
战斗持续了几个小时，对于一场中世纪的战斗来说，时间异常漫长。然而，诺曼人骑兵对盎格鲁-撒克逊人步兵的优势正在慢慢发挥作用，随着部队的大量减少，没有足够的盎格鲁-撒克逊士兵留下来保卫山脊。当然，在那个时候，训练有素的轻骑兵部队在斯坦福桥战役中被耗尽是决定性的。在最后一次骑兵冲锋中，哈罗德和其他撒克逊人的领导人，包括国王的兄弟吉尔斯和利奥夫威都阵亡了。哈罗德的死亡，在记载上是由眼睛中箭造成的，然后在骑兵的冲锋中倒地，最后被诺曼人的剑砍成碎片，脸朝下躺在地上。剩下的盎格鲁-撒克逊士兵在撤退到附近一座名为马尔福斯的山上时进行了一场英勇而绝望的战斗，但他们最终被歼灭，威廉获得了全面的胜利。
The Norman duke later built an abbey, known as Battle Abbey, on the site of the battle in thanks for his success, and its ruins still stand there today. The fate of Harold's body is unknown, although one 12th-century tradition states that his remains were removed from burial near the battlefield to Waltham Abbey - even if a later exploration of the tomb revealed that it was empty. There was also a legend that Harold had survived the battle and lived into old age but such stories and the mystery of the fallen king's burial are probably exactly what William wished: there would be no king's burial and no martyr's grave for rebels to rally around.
后来，诺曼底公爵为了感谢他的胜利，在战斗的地点建造了一座修道院，称为战役修道院，其废墟至今仍矗立在那里。哈罗德尸体的命运不得而知，尽管有一个12世纪的传说，他的遗体从战场附近被移到沃尔瑟姆修道院埋葬，尽管后来对墓穴的勘探表明它是空的。还有一个传说，哈罗德在战斗中幸存下来并终老，但这样的故事和亡国之君的埋葬之谜可能正是威廉所希望的：没有国王的埋葬，也没有烈士的坟墓供叛军集结。
战斗结束后
William the Conqueror, as he became known, was crowned William I, king of England on Christmas Day of the same year at Westminster Abbey, bringing an end to 500 years of Saxon rule. William, though, did have to struggle for five more years - winning battles against rebels in the north of England and building Norman motte and bailey castles everywhere - before he completely controlled his new realm.
征服者威廉（William the Conqueror），后来为人所知，于同年圣诞节在威斯敏斯特教堂加冕为英格兰国王威廉一世，标志着盎格鲁-撒克逊人 500 年统治的结束。然而，威廉在获得对新王国的完全控制之前还需要再战斗五年，在此期间他在英格兰北部赢得了与叛乱分子的战斗，并在各地建造了城寨城堡。
One of the great records of the Battle of Hastings is the Bayeux Tapestry. Produced between 1067 and 1079, the tapestry measures around 68 metres by 50 cm and depicts in detail many aspects of the Norman Conquest and the events leading up to it, but it is a propaganda piece, reinforcing William's claim to the English throne and, for example, omitting the Battle of Stamford Bridge. Nevertheless, the images on the tapestry (actually an embroidery) are striking, particularly of the Battle of Hastings and the death of Harold.
黑斯廷斯战役的重要记录之一是贝叶挂毯。这幅挂毯制作于1067年至1079年间，尺寸约为68米×50厘米，详细描绘了诺曼征服的许多方面以及导致诺曼征服的事件，但它是一幅宣传品，强化了威廉对英国王位的要求，例如，省略了斯坦福桥之战。然而，挂毯（实际上是刺绣）上的图像非常引人注目，尤其是黑斯廷斯之战和哈罗德之死。
The demise of both the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings in the battles of 1066 ushered in a new era of history in northern Europe and England, in particular, where the Normans replaced the Anglo-Saxon ruling elite, the Church was similarly restructured, and much closer ties with continental Europe were established, especially with France, something which would have a tremendous bearing on the history of the two countries over the following centuries.
盎格鲁-撒克逊人和维京人在 1066 年的战斗中双双失败，开启了北欧历史，尤其是英格兰的新纪元，诺曼人取代了盎格鲁撒克逊人的统治精英，教会也进行了重组，并与欧洲大陆，特别是与法国建立了更为密切的联系，这将对这两个国家随后几个世纪的历史产生巨大影响。
参考书目:
Allen Brown, R. The Norman Conquest of England. Boydell, 1995.
Bennett, M. Campaigns of the Norman Conquest. Osprey Publishing, 2001.
Blockmans, W. Introduction to Medieval Europe 300–1500. Routledge, 2017.
Cole, T. The Norman Conquest. Amberley Publishing, 2016.
Hicks, C. The Bayeux Tapestry. Random House UK, 2008.
Mathew, D. Britain and the Continent 1000-1300. Hodder Education.
Morris, M. The Norman Conquest. Windmill Books, 2019.
Nicolle, D. The Normans. Osprey Publishing, 1987.
Williams, B. Bayeux Tapestry Secrets - French. Pitkin Publishing, 2019.
原文作者：Mark Cartwright
驻意大利的历史作家。他的主要兴趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神话和发现所有文明的共同思想。他拥有政治哲学硕士学位，是《世界历史百科全书》的出版总监。
原文网址：https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Hastings/
