【简译】伊丽莎白时代的饮食
Food and drink in the Elizabethan era was remarkably diverse with much more meat and many more varieties of it being eaten by those who could afford it than is the case today. Storage of food was still a problem and so fresh produce was grown at home or regularly acquired at local markets. Thick sauces with strong flavours were popular and made even more varied as ingredients became more readily available from Asia. Pastries, cakes, and other sweet goodies of all kinds were greatly appreciated and often eaten between the savoury courses. A healthy distrust of water meant that ale and beer were the most popular drinks, with wine a welcome addition for the better off. While some commoners struggled, as ever, to feed their families, especially in the long winters of the 16th century CE, foreign visitors did often remark on how well-fed the Elizabethan peasantry was and how overfed the rich were compared to their continental neighbours.
伊丽莎白时代的饮食非常多样化，与今天相比，那些负担得起的人消费的肉类和其他食品种类要多得多。由于食物储存一直是个问题，因此，新鲜的农产品都是自家生产的，或者定期从当地市场购买。味道浓郁的酱汁很受欢迎，而且随着原料从亚洲变得更加容易获得，酱汁的种类也更加丰富。糕点、蛋糕和其他各种甜食供不应求，并经常在荤素搭配的菜肴间食用。对水质的不信任意味着麦芽酒和啤酒是当时最受欢迎的饮品，而葡萄酒则是对富裕阶层饮品的最佳补充。虽然部分平民一如既往地挣扎着养活自己的家人，特别是在公元16世纪的漫长冬季，但外国游客经常评论说，伊丽莎白时代的农民吃得很好，与他们的大陆邻居相比，富人吃得更丰盛。
烹饪和存储
Most Elizabethan cooking was done at home but there were communal ovens in many parishes for people to take their prepared dough and have it baked into bread or to have a stew (pottage) slowly cooked. Those who could afford servants also had cooks, usually women but including men, too, at the great houses. Even the humblest of kitchens would have had such indispensable cooking and preparation aids as a large brass pot and iron pan, a spit for roasting over the fire, a milk pail and sundry containers, utensils and serving dishes for food made of wood, clay or pewter. Most cooking was done over an open fire of wood or charcoal with a large pot either stood on legs actually in the fire or suspended over it using chains. The main methods of cooking were boiling, roasting, and frying. The fourth method was baking and involved putting the dish inside a closed oven made of clay or brick much like a wood-burning pizza oven today.
大多数伊丽莎白时代的烹饪都是在家里完成的，但在许多教区都有公用烤炉，人们可以把准备好的面团拿去烤成面包，或者用小火煮炖菜（汤）。那些在大房子里能雇得起仆人的人也有厨师，通常是女人，也有男人。即使是最简陋的厨房，也会有一些不可或缺的准备和烹饪工具，如大黄铜锅和铁锅、用于在火上烘烤的烤肉叉、牛奶桶和各种容器、器皿以及用木头、粘土或锡镴制成的餐具。大多数烹饪是在木头或木炭的明火上进行的，大锅直立在火中，或者用铁链悬挂在火上。主要的烹调方法是煮、煎和炸。第四种方法是烘烤，就是把菜放在一个封闭的粘土或砖块制成的烤炉里，就像今天的燃木比萨烤箱一样。
Larger households stored food in giant meal chests which were airtight and used to keep such goods as grain and preserved meat and fish. In contrast, hutches ('pantries') were boxes with air-holes for keeping fresh food like cheeses. In households with a staff of servants, these chests were often kept locked to prevent unauthorised nibbling. The vast majority of the population still worked in agriculture and often had their own small plot of land for their own personal needs. Indeed, even artisans who specialised in such activities as weaving and making clothes still kept a patch of land for their vegetable garden and some poultry. Local markets supplied everything else but the larger estates would have been more self-sufficient producing their own bread, milk, cheese, meat, and fish on site.
人口较多的家庭会将食物储存在巨大的餐箱中，这些餐箱是密闭的，用于保存谷物和腌制的肉类和鱼类等物品。相比之下，hutches（'储藏柜'）是带有气孔的箱子，用于储存奶酪等新鲜食品。在有仆人的家庭中，这些箱子通常是锁着的，以防止偷食。绝大多数人仍然从事农业工作，他们拥有自己的小块土地以满足自己的个人需求。事实上，即使是专门从事织布和制衣等活动的工匠，也仍然保留了一块土地作为他们的菜园并养一些家禽。当地市场提供丰富的食品，但一些大庄园可以自给自足，生产面包、牛奶、奶酪、肉和鱼。
富人的膳食
The wealthy were much more likely to have the time to eat a sit-down breakfast. The meal was not particularly different from those later in the day and might include porridge, bread, cheese, fruit and meat. The poorer classes would have just grabbed any leftovers from the night before or a chunk of bread and butter and been off to start their working day. The two main meals for everyone remained around 11 am to 12 noon and again from 6 to 9 pm. Snacks of bread, cheese, and cold food washed down with a cup of ale would have been taken any time in-between.
富人更可能有充裕的时间坐下来美美地享用早餐。早餐与当天晚些时候的饭菜没有特别的区别，可能包括粥、面包、奶酪、水果和肉。贫困阶层的人们则只需吃完前一天晚上的剩饭或一大块面包配上黄油就可以开始一天的工作了。每个人的两顿正餐都是在上午11点到12点左右，以及下午6点到9点之间。其间，人们会吃一些面包、奶酪和冷食，用一杯麦酒打消时间。
A meal table was set with a large wooden plate (trencher) which had a hollowed-out centre for the food and sometimes a little dip in the corner for placing salt, a bowl for food, a bowl for waste, and a large-bowled spoon. The diners brought their own knives. Forks were not yet used in England but they were not needed as most food was already cut up before serving. There was a drinking cup which could be an ornate goblet, a simple glass beaker, a lidded tankard in pewter, a ceramic mug, or a 'black jack' - a leather mug stiffened with pitch. Hands were washed before starting the meal and napkins were often provided which women placed on their laps while men, curiously, draped over one shoulder.
餐桌上通常会摆放一个大木盘（trencher），中间镂空，用来盛放食物，有的在角落里有一个小凹槽，用来放盐，一个碗用来盛放食物，一个碗用来盛放垃圾，还有一个大碗状的勺子。食客们自己带着刀具，当时的英国人还没有广泛使用叉子，但也不需要叉子，因为大多数食物在上桌前就已经切好了。每个人都有一个酒杯，可以是华丽的高脚杯、简单的玻璃杯、有盖的锡制酒杯、陶瓷杯或“黑杰克”——用沥青硬化的皮杯。在开始用餐之前要洗手，主人通常会提供餐巾，妇女把餐巾放在大腿上，而男人则奇怪地把餐巾披在左/右肩上。
Perhaps the greatest difference between the diets of the upper classes and the lower classes was the quantity of meat the former group ate. Meat was fresh or, when eaten in the winter months, was preserved via salting, smoking, drying, or pickling. The latter methods were a necessity because animals were often slaughtered before the onset of winter as feeding them in that season was difficult. Cured hams and sausages were another way to keep meat edible through the winter.
也许上层阶级和下层阶级饮食的最大区别在于前者的肉食量。肉要么是新鲜的，或者在冬季食用时，通过盐渍、烟熏、干燥或腌制来保存。后一种方法是必要的，因为动物经常在冬季来临之前被宰杀，在冬季喂养它们是很困难的。腌制火腿和香肠是保持肉类在冬季仍可食用的好方法。
Meat dishes on offer for those who could afford it included beef, veal, pork, lamb, mutton, and poultry such as chicken, duck, goose and pigeon. Game meat included rabbit, venison, woodcock, and many other types of birds from pheasants to cranes. Game was often protected by forest laws with strict punishments for poachers. Not much of an animal was ever wasted as dishes were made using trotters, feet, and heads. Fish was also a common dish and eaten wholly in place of meat during Lent (Protestant Elizabethan England kept up the practice to support fishermen). Common fish included cod, mackerel, and herring, with more expensive fish being salmon, trout, and pike amongst many others. Other seafood included eels, crustaceans, and shellfish (especially mussels, crab, shrimp, and oysters). Seafood was cheap in villages and towns on the coast or near rivers but was a luxury only for the rich in inland areas.
提供给那些负担得起的人的肉类包括牛肉、小牛肉、猪肉、羔羊肉、山羊肉和家禽，如鸡、鸭、鹅和鸽子。野味包括兔肉、鹿肉、丘鹬，以及从野鸡到鹤等许多其他可食用的鸟类。狩猎通常受到森林法的保护，偷猎者会受到严格的惩罚。人们也使用动物的蹄、脚和头来制作菜肴，因此几乎没有浪费的部位。鱼也是一道常见的菜肴，在四旬斋期间专门用来代替肉类（伊丽莎白时代的新教徒保持了这种做法以支持渔民）。常见的鱼包括鳕鱼、鲭鱼和鲱鱼，更昂贵的鱼是鲑鱼、鳟鱼和梭鱼等。其他海产品包括鳗鱼、甲壳类和贝类（特别是贻贝、螃蟹、对虾和牡蛎）。海鲜在沿海或靠近河流的村镇很便宜，但对内陆地区的富人来说却是一种奢侈品。
At special dinners, the guests could choose from a wide variety of meat dishes and even ask for a sample before making their decision. Flavours were added using spices, a handy extra that also hid the taste of salted or not quite top-grade meat. Flavours were added to sauces thickened with bread crumbs and included spices from the East Indies like pepper, cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg, as well as ginger, hot peppers, saffron, garlic, and mustard, perhaps the most popular flavour of all for meat dishes, at least. Other commonly added flavours included salt, onions of all types, fennel, rocket, vinegar, olive oil, and such herbs as sage, parsley, thyme, and rosemary. Even flowers were tossed in to add their distinctive tastes and a splash of colour, for example, marigolds, violets, and primroses. Meat was frequently cooked in ale, almond milk, wine, and verjuice (the sour juice of crabapples). Stews using pieces of meat and fish were made with the above flavourings and spices added along with thickeners such as rice, barley, and oats.
在特别的庆祝晚宴上，客人们可以从种类繁多的肉类菜肴中进行选择，甚至在做出决定之前可以适当尝一尝。适当地使用香料可以增加更多风味，掩盖太咸或品质较低的肉的味道。香料被添加到用面包屑勾芡的酱汁中，包括来自东印度群岛的香料，如胡椒、丁香、肉桂和肉豆蔻，以及生姜、辣椒、藏红花、大蒜和芥末，这也许是所有肉类菜肴中最受欢迎的味道。其他常用的调味品包括盐、各种类型的洋葱、茴香、芝麻菜、醋、橄榄油和香草，如鼠尾草、欧芹、百里香和迷迭香等。人们甚至会在食物中加一些花瓣，以增加其独特的味道和淡淡的色彩，例如，金盏花、紫罗兰和报春花。肉类常在麦芽酒、杏仁奶、葡萄酒和verjuice（海棠果的酸汁，verjuice还有酸葡萄汁的意思）中烹制。使用肉块和鱼块的炖菜是用上述调味品和香料以及大米、大麦和燕麦等增稠剂制成的。
A 16th-century CE cookbook gives the following summary of a fairly typical meal for the wealthy:
The First Course: Pottage or stewed broth; boiled meat or stewed meat, chickens and bacon, powdered [salted] beef, pies, goose, pig, roasted beef, roasted veal, custard.
The Second Course: Roasted lamb, roasted capons, roasted conies [rabbit], chickens, peahens, baked venison, tart. (Singman, 132)
一本16世纪的烹饪书对富人的一顿相当典型的饭菜做了如下总结：
第一道菜。炖肉或炖汤；水煮肉或炖肉、鸡肉和熏肉、粉状[盐渍]牛肉、馅饼、鹅肉、猪肉、烤牛肉、烤小牛肉、奶油冻。
第二道菜。烤羊肉、烤鸭、烤兔肉、鸡肉、孔雀肉、烤鹿肉、蛋挞。(Singman, 132)
As can readily be seen, meat was eaten so frequently and in such prodigious quantities amongst the rich that they frequently suffered complaints like kidney and bladder stones, as well as urinary infections. The rich ate so well and over so many courses that their servants at least benefitted from this bonanza as they got to eat the leftovers; anything still left over was then given to the poor.
可以看出，富人经常大量食用肉类，经常患有肾结石和膀胱结石以及尿路感染等问题。富人吃得很好，而且吃得很多，他们的仆人也可以从这种大餐中受益，因为他们可以吃到剩余的食物。剩余的菜肴会送给穷人。
Cheese was eaten at the end of the main courses, as were nuts, especially chestnuts, walnuts, and hazelnuts. Sweet dishes, as seen in the above menu, were not necessarily reserved for the final part of the meal but might be served between savoury courses. Desserts included fruit, honey, pastries rich in butter, puddings using stale bread, biscuits, gingerbread, and all manner of cakes, fruit pasties and tarts made using refined sugar (by now being grown in the Americas but still expensive). Sugar was also used to make marmalade, jams, fruit conserves, marzipan, and sweets.
奶酪是在主餐结束时吃的，坚果也是如此，特别是栗子、核桃和榛子。从上面的菜单中可以看出，甜食不一定是保留在用餐的最后部分，也可以在荤素菜肴交替上菜之间供应。当时的甜品包括水果、蜂蜜、富含黄油的糕点，用不新鲜的面包、饼干、姜饼制成的布丁，以及使用精制糖（虽然在美洲有很多甘蔗园，但精制糖的价格仍很昂贵）制作的各种蛋糕、水果馅饼和蛋挞。糖还被用来制作橘子酱、果酱、水果蜜饯、扁桃仁膏和糖果。
平民的膳食
Lunch was more important than dinner for commoners, and generally, all the food was served at the same time. Artisans and agricultural workers ate meat only on special occasions and instead they ate more bread, milk, cheese, and eggs. Bread was, however, another food item that depended on status as the best bread which used the finest, well-ground flour was more expensive. Consequently, the bread on a rich person's table was noticeably whiter than a loaf on a poor person's. The less well-off ate barley bread and rye bread which were very dark brown or almost black in colour. Bread was typically made into low round loaves of various sizes. For labourers, a packed lunch consisting of a chunk of bread, cheese, and large rigid pasties containing meat and/or vegetables would have seen them through their working day.
对平民来说，午餐比晚餐更重要，一般来说，所有的食物都在同一时间供应。工匠和农业工人只有在特殊场合才吃肉，相反，他们吃更多的面包、牛奶、奶酪和鸡蛋。然而，面包是另一种取决于地位的食品，因为使用最好的、磨得很好的面粉的面包更加昂贵。因此，富人桌上的面包明显比穷人桌上的面包要白。不太富裕的人吃的是大麦面包和黑麦面包，它们的颜色非常深，甚至几乎是黑色。面包通常被做成各种尺寸的低圆面包。对于劳动者来说，由一大块面包、奶酪和含有肉类或蔬菜的大块硬质馅饼组成的午餐可以让他们完成一天的工作。
A meat or vegetable stew was a common meal for everyone as it was easy to cook and could be left unattended. One could also throw in whatever ingredients one had to eat up or add something more expensive to make the dish a speciality. Here is a contemporary recipe with cooking tips:
To make the best ordinary pottage, you shall take a rack of mutton cut into pieces, or a leg of mutton cut into pieces; for this meat and these joints are the best, although any other joint or any fresh beef will likewise make good pottage: and having washed your meat well, put it into a clean pot with fair water, and set it on the fire; then take violet leaves, endive, succory, strawberry leaves, spinach, langdebeef [oxtongue], marigold flowers, scallions and a little parsley, and chop them very small together; then take half so much oatmeal well beaten as there is herbs, and mix it with the herbs, and chop all very well together: then when the pot is ready to boil, scum it very well, and then put in your herbs, and so let it boil with a quick fire, stirring the meat oft in the pot till the meat be boiled enough, and then the herbs and water are mixed together without any separation, which will be after the consumption of more than a third part: then season them with salt, and serve them up with the meat either with snippets [thin slices of toasted or fried bread] or without. (Singman, 143)
炖肉或蔬菜对每个人来说都是常见的菜肴，因为它很容易烹饪，而且人们可以在烹调时短暂离开。人们也会把各种想吃的食材扔进锅里，或者加入更昂贵的食材，使这道菜成为餐桌上的特色菜。下面是一个带有烹饪技巧的仿古食谱：
要做最好的普通炖肉，你应该把羊排切成块，或者把羊腿切成块；因为这种肉和骨头适合做炖菜，尽管其他骨头或新鲜牛肉也能做成较好的炖肉。把肉洗干净后，放在一个干净的锅里，加入适量的清水，放在火上；然后取紫罗兰叶、苣荬菜、肉桂、草莓叶、菠菜叶、苦参叶、金盏花、大葱和少许欧芹，把它们切碎；然后取一半打好的燕麦片，与这些香草混合。当汤沸腾时时，用勺舀起汤的浮沫，然后将混合好的香草与燕麦下锅，用快火煮沸，但要不停地搅拌汤，直到肉煮熟，最后用盐调味，与肉一起食用，可以用面片[烤过的或炸过的面包薄片]蘸（包）着吃，也可以不用。(Singman, 143)
England was self-sufficient in terms of agricultural produce, although the run of bad harvests in the 1590s CE did necessitate the import of grain and prices tripled. Eggs were a favourite with everybody and added to a large number of dishes, as was lard which at least solved the problem of where to find protein and calories. The most commonly eaten vegetables were peas, beans, and lentils. Other common vegetables included spinach, artichokes, asparagus, carrots, and lettuce. In the 1580s CE, the potato had been introduced to England from the New World by Sir Walter Raleigh (c. 1552-1618 CE), but it remained an expensive delicacy and was yet to realise its full potential. Commonly cultivated fruits included apples, pears, grapes, plums, apricots, figs, strawberries, raspberries, and mulberries. For the rich, oranges, lemons, capers, and olives were imported from mainland Europe. As the Elizabethan period witnessed the so-called Little Ice Age, the winter season was markedly longer than in other eras greatly increasing the risk of scurvy as vitamin-rich fresh food became scarce. Consequently, whatever the season offered in terms of wild vegetables and fruits were well-received by everyone.
英国在农产品方面是自给自足的，尽管16世纪90年代的一系列歉收导致粮食进口和价格上涨了两倍。鸡蛋很受大家喜爱，它可以搭配到很多菜肴中，猪油也是如此，这至少解决了蛋白质和热量摄取问题。消费最多的蔬菜是豌豆、豆子和小扁豆。其他常见的蔬菜有菠菜、朝鲜蓟、芦笋、胡萝卜和生菜。在16世纪80年代，马铃薯由沃尔特·罗利爵士（约 1552-1618 年）从新大陆引入英国，但它仍然是一种昂贵的商品，尚未充分发挥其潜力。当时普遍种植的水果有苹果、梨、葡萄、李子、杏子、无花果、草莓、覆盆子和桑葚。对于英国富人来说，橙子、柠檬、刺山柑和橄榄都是从欧洲大陆进口的。由于伊丽莎白时代经历了所谓的小冰河时期，冬季明显比其他时代长，这大大增加了人们患坏血病的风险，因为富含维生素的新鲜食物变得稀缺。因此，无论什么季节，野菜和水果都受到大家的欢迎。
饮 品
Drinking water was avoided by most people as it was rarely ever clean and tasteless. Elizabethans were aware that water harboured disease (typhoid, cholera, and dysentery) and for this reason drank beer or ale made from malted barley, water, and added spices. Beer from hops was the cheapest drink because, having a higher alcohol content, it could be stored longer than any of the others; although finer beers were aged for up to two years before drinking. Ale was so light in alcohol it was drunk even by children but it could be strengthened, sometimes by as much as four times the norm, and this heady brew became known by various nicknames like 'Dragon's Milk' and 'Mad Dog'.
大多数人都避免喝水，因为水很少是干净无味的。伊丽莎白时代的人意识到水会带来疾病（伤寒、霍乱和痢疾），因此他们经常饮用由大麦、水和添加的香料制成的啤酒或麦芽酒。用啤酒花酿制的啤酒是最便宜的饮料，因为它的酒精含量较高，可以比其他饮品储存得更久；优质啤酒在饮用前要陈酿两年的时间。麦芽酒的酒精含量很低，甚至连儿童都可以喝，但它可以被加工，有时甚至是标准的四倍，这种令人陶醉的啤酒有各种绰号，如“龙奶”和“疯狗”。
Wine, both plain and fortified, was also drunk, but as this was imported from Continental Europe and was exposed to import duties, it was not cheap. A bottle of wine cost around 12 times as much as a bottle of ale. France was the main source and came in two broad groups: from northern France and called simply 'French' wine and from the Bordeaux region when it was called 'Gascon' wine or claret. Other wines came from the Rhine area, Italy, and Greece. Three fortified sweet wines were popular: 'sack' from Jerez (which later became known as sherry), 'Madeira' from the Madeira Islands and 'Canary' from the Canary Islands. Other popular alcoholic drinks included cider, mead (honey wine), perry (from fermented pears), and 'raspie' made from raspberries. Just about any seasonal fruits - from gooseberries to elderberries - were used to make wines, although the quality must have been generally low and the taste an acquired one. Finally, spirits were made from distilled wine such as aqua vitae but these were largely used as a medicine, as was spiced wine.
人们也喝葡萄酒，包括普通葡萄酒和强化葡萄酒，但这些葡萄酒是从欧洲大陆进口的，需要缴纳进口税，所以价格并不便宜。一瓶葡萄酒的价格大约是一瓶麦芽酒的12倍。法国是葡萄酒的主要来源地，分为两大类：来自法国北部的葡萄酒，被简单地称为 “法国”葡萄酒；来自波尔多地区的葡萄酒被称为“加斯科”葡萄酒或红葡萄酒。还有一些葡萄酒来自莱茵河地区、意大利和希腊。有三种强化甜酒很受欢迎：来自赫雷斯的“sack”（后来被称为雪利酒），来自马德拉群岛的“Madeira”和来自加那利群岛的“Canary”。其他流行的酒精饮料包括苹果酒、蜂蜜酒、梨酒（来自发酵的梨子）和用覆盆子制成的“raspie”。几乎所有的季节性水果——从醋栗到接骨木浆果——都被用来酿酒，尽管质量普遍较低，味道也是后天形成的。最后，人们用蒸馏的葡萄酒制成烈性酒，如生命之水（aqua vitae，阿夸维特），但这些烈性酒和香料酒一样，主要是作为药物使用。
If not drunk at home, alcoholic drinks were readily available at inns (which also served food), taverns (which did not usually serve food and whose clientele preferred wine), alehouses, and basic food-serving places known as 'ordinaries'. Both men and women attended all of these establishments. Another source was church ales, which were regularly organised by parish churches to raise funds for the upkeep of the church and to help the poor in the parish. Some church ales spanned across several days and two or three might be held annually. Food was available and entertainment such as players, wrestling and Morris dancing was provided but it was the attraction of the ale and the tendency for attendees to get a little carried away that so upset the Puritans towards the end of Elizabeth's reign.
如果不在家里喝，在旅馆（也提供食物）、酒馆（通常不提供食物，其顾客更喜欢喝葡萄酒）、啤酒屋和被称为普通餐厅的基本食物供应场所可以随时买到酒精饮料。男人和女人都会进入这些场所。另一个来源是教区盛宴，由教会定期提供，以筹集资金用于维护教堂并帮助教区的穷人。有些教堂酒会持续数天，每年可能会举办两到三次。教堂还提供食物和娱乐活动，如演奏者、摔跤和莫里斯舞，但正是由于麦芽酒的吸引力和参加者有点忘乎所以的倾向，在伊丽莎白统治末期，清教徒们对此非常恼火。
参考书目：
Guy, John. Tudor England. Oxford University Press, 1988.
Miller, John. Early Modern Britain, 1450-1750. Cambridge University Press, 2017.
Morrill, John. The Oxford Illustrated History of Tudor & Stuart Britain. Oxford University Press, 1996.
Singman, Jeffrey, L. Daily Life in Elizabethan England. Greenwood, 1995.
Wagner, John A. Historical Dictionary of the Elizabethan World. Greenwood, 1999.
原文作者：Mark Cartwright
驻意大利的历史作家。他的主要兴趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神话和发现所有文明的共同思想。他拥有政治哲学硕士学位，是《世界历史百科全书》的出版总监。
原文网址：https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1578/food--drink-in-the-elizabethan-era/
