中世纪世界生活手册（十六）
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2 SOCIETY
尽管宗教上存在差异，但在中世纪时期的基督教、犹太教和伊斯兰教，社会的基本轮廓具有显著的相似性。这三个亚伯拉罕宗教都认为人类社会应该遵循神的旨意来发展。宗教人士（神职人员、拉比和乌里玛）被置于各自社会秩序的顶端，尽管在伊斯兰教，尤其是基督教，宗教领袖在对世俗统治者施加影响时可能会遇到困难。管理基督教徒、犹太人和穆斯林社会生活的法律、制度和世界观，同样也是以宗教和道德价值观为绝大多数条件的。宗教和道德决定了规范家庭和社区生活、社会地位、商业和工作关系、适当教育、饮食法、合法和非法的休闲方式、犯罪、惩罚和法治——总之，涵盖了这三个宗教社区社会生活的所有参数。
For all their religious differences, remarkable similarities characterize the basic contours of society during the Christian, Jewish, and Islamic medieval period. All three Abrahamic faiths shared the belief that human society should be ordered according to the divine will. Religious personnel—clergy, rabbis, and ulema—were positioned at the apex of the social order of their respective societies, although in the Muslim and especially the Christian case, religious leaders might encounter difficulty in exerting their influence over secular rulers. The laws, institutions, and worldview that governed social life of Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike were likewise overwhelmingly conditioned by religious and moral values. Religion and ethics dictated the norms regulating family and communal life, social status, business and work relations, a proper education, dietary laws, licit and illicit forms of leisure, crime, punishment, and the rule of law—in short, all the parameters of the social life of all three religious communities.
然而，这些重要的相似之处不能让我们忽视基督教、犹太教和穆斯林社会的重要差异。在11世纪亨利五世皇帝和教皇格列高利七世（額我略七世）之间的“叙任权斗争”中，精神与世俗权力之间的政治二元论达到了高潮，这在犹太社会和穆斯林社会中都是不存在的，因为在那里，宗教和世俗之间的政治分离概念本身并不存在。同样，封建主义和庄园主义只在基督教国家出现过，这是因为其领土和社会组织以及继承法的特殊性。
Such significant similarities must not blind us, however, to important differences in the Christian, Jewish, and Muslim societies. The political dualism that confronted the spiritual and temporal powers that would reach its climax in the Investiture Controversy of the 11th century between Emperor Henry V and Pope Gregory VII had no parallel in either Jewish or Muslim society, where the very concept of a political separation between the sacred and the profane did not exist. In the same vein, feudalism and manoralism emerged only in Christendom owing to the particularities of its territorial and social organization and inheritance laws.
将中世纪的基督徒、犹太人和穆斯林分开的理论和理想化的社会差异不得不根据现实生活中的共存与互动进行重新考量。散居以东土地上的犹太人的存在，意味着占主导地位的基督教和穆斯林社会必须建立相应机构来容纳其犹太少数民族。犹太人关于理想社会的概念总是不得不与基督教或穆斯林统治下不断变化的现实相抗衡，生活在穆斯林统治下的基督教少数群体也是如此。事实上，当政治潮流开始对穆斯林不利时，伊斯兰教处理宗教少数群体的策略会影响基督教的立法，而穆斯林会发现自己受到基督教的统治。
Theoretical and idealized social differences separating medieval Christians, Jews, and Muslims constantly had to be renegotiated in light of real-life coexistence and interaction. The existence of a Jewish Diaspora dispersed between the lands of Esau and Edom meant that the dominant Christian and Muslim societies had to create institutions to accommodate their Jewish minorities. Jewish notions of the ideal society always had to contend with the changing realities of subjugation to Christian or Muslim rule, and the same may be said of Christian minorities living under Muslim rule. Indeed, Islamic strategies for dealing with religious minorities would influence Christian legislation when the political tide began to turn against the Muslims, who would find themselves subjected to Christian rule.
中世纪世界的基督徒、犹太人和穆斯林之间的社会关系有许多不同的形式，而且往往是相互矛盾的，从为君主提供外交与财政服务的崇高特权世界到犯罪与卖淫的肮脏的黑社会。对知识的探求和对人类理性的共同推崇将穆斯林、犹太人和基督徒吸引到学术性的大学和图书馆中。通婚、宗教皈依、公民节日、商业交易和奴隶制是人类互动的其他社会舞台。毗邻而居的社区之间爆发的社会暴力，有时是由宗教差异引起的，但更多的时候可能是由经济和政治竞争引起的。在下文中，重点将放在强调基督教、犹太教和伊斯兰教社会的独特特征上，同时也不忽视煽动社会互动的环境。为了防止重复，犹太人作为宗教少数群体的情况将在专门讨论犹太社会的章节中详细论述。
Social relations among Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the medieval world took many different and often contradictory forms, from the lofty privileged world of diplomatic and fiscal service to the sovereign to the tawdry underworld of crime and prostitution. The search for knowledge and the shared exalting of human reason drew Muslims, Jews, and Christians together at scholarly universities and libraries. Intermarriage, religious conversion, civic festivals, business transactions, and slavery were among the other social arenas where human interactions took place. The social violence that erupted among communities living side by side sometimes was fueled by religious difference but perhaps more often by economic and political competition. In what follows the emphasis shall be placed on highlighting the distinct characteristics of Christian, Jewish, and Muslim society, while not ignoring the circumstances that fomented social interaction. In order to prevent redundancy, the situation of the Jews as a religious minority will be treated in detail in the section devoted to Jewish society.
基 督 教 社 会
二元性和等級制度
封建制度、城市、法人团体和大学在中世纪不断发展。二元性和等级制度是中世纪基督教世界的特点之一。一个男人、女人或孩子要么生活在城镇和乡村的世俗世界，要么生活在教堂和修道院的宗教世界，但这两个世界经常发生交集。宗教世界的艺术、文学、科学和哲学都宣称自己比世俗世界优越。讲台上的布道者劝说基督徒遵守耶稣基督的命令，把属于基督的东西交给世俗的基督，把属于上帝的东西交给上帝。教会演说家声称，强大的上帝之城，即教会的精神生活，正如圣奥古斯丁的精彩著作《上帝之城》中所说的那样，在人们的城市中，它的地位高于微不足道的世俗争斗。
Feudalism, the city, the corporation, and the university evolved in the Middle Ages. Duality and hierarchy characterized this medieval Christian world. An individual man, woman, or child lived either in the secular world of the town and country or in the sacred world of the church and monastery. But the two worlds frequently intersected. Art, literature, science, and philosophy of the sacred world proclaimed its superiority to the secular. Pulpit sermons exhorted Christians to obey Jesus Christ’s command to render to worldly Caesar the things that were Caesar’s and to God those that were God’s. Church orators claimed that the powerful City of God, the church’s spiritual life, as in Saint Augustine’s wonderful book The City of God, had supremacy over paltry earthly strivings in the city of people.
然而，世俗世界的艺术、文学、科学和哲学都渴望超越基督教的经文和信仰，通过理性上升到模仿上帝的卓越和赞美上帝按其形象创造人类的创造力。1000年，飞行家马姆斯伯里的埃尔默（Eilmer）在胳膊和腿上绑着翅膀，在飞行中滑行，13世纪商业革命中的企业家和国际贸易商也有类似的意图。他们把思想与身体结合起来，超越了地球上的其他人，然后回到了普通人的生活中。通过发挥人类的潜力，通过敢于超越传统的限制，男人和女人赞美上帝为他们提供了天赋和自由意志。
Yet art, literature, science, and philosophy of the secular world aspired beyond Christian Scripture and faith to ascend through reason to a creativity that imitated God’s excellence and celebrated God’s creation of humankind in his image. The aviator monk Eilmer, who, with wings strapped to his arms and legs, glided in flight in the year 1000, and the entrepreneurial merchants and international traders of the 13th-century commercial revolution had similar intentions. They integrated mind with body to soar beyond others on Earth and then returned to commonplace humanity. By fulfilling human potential and by daring beyond customary limitations, men and women praised God for providing them talent and free will.
在世俗和精神领域，上帝的作为在东西方大分裂中进一步分裂，拉丁教（即西方罗马天主教）和希腊教（即东方正教）在11世纪正式分离。教会生活的动荡影响了城市和乡村人们的生活。随后，罗马天主教会内部的摩擦导致了哲学上的分歧和教皇的双重身份。当1378年的红衣主教会议未能就选举教皇达成一致时，他们反而选出了两位教皇，一位在阿维尼翁统治，另一位在罗马统治。在这种被称为“教皇权在巴比伦的囚禁”的难以忍受的情况下，每个教皇都要求缴纳税款，并发布必须遵守的诏书。双重教皇制在1409年变成了三重教皇制，然后在1414年降为教皇统一制，教会秩序得以恢复。
In both the temporal and spiritual realms, God’s works were further divided in the Great Schism of East and West between the Latin, or Western Roman Catholic, Church, and the Greek, or Eastern Orthodox, Church, which separated formally in the 11th century. Turmoil in the life of the church affected people’s lives in the city and in the country. Then friction within the Roman Catholic Church led to philosophical divisions and papal dualities. When a 1378 conclave of cardinals failed to agree on electing a pope, they elected instead two popes, one reigning at Avignon, the other at Rome. In this intolerable circumstance called the Babylonian Captivity each pope demanded taxes to be paid and issued edicts to be obeyed. A dual papacy became a triple papacy in 1409 before it was reduced to papal unity in 1414 and ecclesiastical order was restored.
城市与农村的问题是中世纪社会生活另一重要的二元性。其他平行的二元性是社会秩序的特征，它们有各自不同的效忠对象、特权和责任，包括法人与非法人商业，大学学术主义与经验主义的实用性，国王的政治体与国王的自然体，以及回廊中神职人员的公共生活与城镇住宅中商人的个人主义及创业生活。
Urban versus rural concerns were another important duality of medieval social life. Other parallel dualities characterizing the social order that had their distinct sets of allegiances, privileges, and accountabilities were corporate versus unincorporated commerce, university Scholasticism versus empirical practicality, kingly body politic versus kingly human physique, and communal life of the clergy in the cloister versus individualistic, entrepreneurial life of the merchant in the townhouse.
每个二元社会世界都是有等级的，每个人都坚定地站在社会阶梯的某一阶层。每一等级都有其权力、权利、责任和要求，并与上一级和下一级相互关联。一个人可以在社会等级中上升或下降。正如被创造的宇宙被描述为一个巨大的存在链一样，世俗领域也被理解为一个巨大的政治存在链，顶端是国王或皇帝，然后是由首席佃户、附庸、封臣、骑士、乡绅、仆人和其他多个环节组成的下降的封建秩序，最后到达耕种土地的农奴。层次分明的相互依存关系也是工匠行会的特点。处于顶峰的贸易大师在经过适当的培训后雇佣了一个工匠，他从学徒教育和服务中一路走来。
Each dual social world was hierarchical. Every individual stood firmly on a rung of a social ladder. Each hieratic rank had its powers, rights, responsibilities, and requirements interrelated with the level above and the one below. One might ascend or descend in social rank. Just as the created universe was described as a great chain of being, so the secular realm was construed as a great political chain of being with the king or the emperor at the top and then descending feudal orders of chief tenant, vassals, vavasours, knights, squires, servants, and multiple other links before reaching down to serfs who worked the land. Hierarchic interdependencies also characterized craftsmen’s guilds. The trade master at the pinnacle hired after suitable training a journeyman, who worked his way up from the education and service of an apprentice.
与世俗等级制度相类似的是教会等级，从教皇在主要圣职的最高层（由教皇英诺森三世（1198-1216）正式编纂）到主教、牧师、执事和副执事，都被认为比次要圣职（搬运工、传教士、驱魔人和圣徒）的权力高。
Comparable to secular hierarchies were ecclesiastical rankings ranging down from the pope at the top of the Major Orders, formally codified by Pope Innocent III (1198–1216), through bishops, priests, deacons, and subdeacons, all considered superior in authority to members of the Minor Orders, the porters, lectors, exorcists, and acolytes.
大多数等级关系是通过书面或暗示的自愿协议建立的。封建和学徒关系通常有书面协议。每个协议签署者都承诺以价值交换价值，而且义务是相互的、对等的。土地和商业协议中的权利和责任可以在有管辖权的法院强制执行。任何一个结婚、离婚、买房、租房、为公司工作、买卖股票、住在农场、住在城市或签署协议的美国人，都在宗教圣礼、私有财产法、封建制度、房地产法、公司、大学和城市组织中遇到过与中世纪社会的二元性和等级制度相似的显著持久模式。这些社会机构的基本结构和术语从12世纪之前一直延续至今。
Most hierarchical relationships were created by written or implied voluntary contracts. Feudal and apprenticeship relationships usually had written contracts. Each contract signer pledged to exchange value for value, and obligations were mutual and reciprocal. Rights and responsibilities in land and business contracts could be enforced in a court of law with competent jurisdiction. Any American who has married, divorced, bought a house, rented an apartment, worked for a corporation, traded stock, lived on a farm, lived in a city, or signed a contract has encountered the remarkably durable patterns of medieval society’s dualities and hierarchies in religious sacraments, private property law, feudalism, real estate law, corporations, universities, and urban organizations. Fundamental structures and terminology of all these social institutions have endured from before the 12th century to today.
存在锁链（GREAT CHAIN OF BEING）
存在锁链是世界秩序中所有元素相互关联的公式化表达。正如狄奥尼修斯所描述的天体等级制度，上帝被置于大链条的顶端，后面是由九位天使组成的三个唱诗班，包括撒拉弗（天使之首炽天使）、智天使和座天使；然后是宰制天使、美德天使和权力天使；接着是公国天使、大天使和天使。与上面的天使和下面的动物相连，男人和女人占据了这个链条的中间环节。在人类下面是各种类型的野兽，然后是树木和植物的阶层，最后是岩石和石头的底层环节。每一个环节都与上面和下面的环节紧密联系在一起。利用理性和灵魂的欢愉，人类有能力上升到天使的水平。男人和女人也有动物倾向，在沉溺于肉体的快乐中向野兽堕落。这种世界秩序，即Ordo mundi，展示了上帝对宇宙中完美序列的神圣计划，即奇异的相互联系的创造。总的大宇宙是拥有四个元素和四个对立面的宏观世界，在人身上和谐地还原，小宇宙是微观世界，由四种体液组成。
The great chain of being was the formulaic expression of the interrelatedness of all elements in the world order. God was positioned at the top of the great chain followed by three choirs of nine angels, as Dionysius described their celestial hierarchy, with seraphim, cherubim, and thrones; then dominations, virtues, and powers; followed by principalities, archangels, and angels. Linked to angels above and to animals below, man and woman occupied the middle links of the chain. Beneath humankind were various classes of beasts, then strata of trees and plants, and finally the bottom links of rocks and stones. Each link was tightly interconnected to the ones above and below. Human beings had the ability to ascend to the level of angels, using reason and rejoicing in the soul. Men and women also had human tendencies to descend toward beasts in indulging carnal pleasures. This order of the world, ordo mundi, demonstrated God’s divine plan for a perfect sequence in the universe, the singular interconnected creation. The total grand cosmos was the macrocosm possessing four elements and four contraries harmoniously reduced in the human being, the universe in small, the microcosm, composed of the four humors.
人类的生命被看作是由七个年龄段组成的，七个相互关联的阶段，从婴儿期开始，经过青年期、少年期、壮年期，到老年期、晚年和死亡。生命太短暂了，不能在童年时期花费太长时间。骑士在13岁时就被称为并被赋予战斗力，这也是很多盔甲在现代人眼中显得如此渺小的原因之一。孩子们很早就被派到工匠那里做学徒，通常在12岁就可以工作了。有些人活得很长，阿基坦的埃莉诺女王活到了83岁。然而，在没有抗生素和抗菌剂的情况下，感染是与毒药或子弹一样严重的威胁。在11-15世纪的西欧，一个中世纪的男人或女人平均能活到33岁左右。
Human life was seen as a set of seven ages, seven interlinked phases beginning in infancy, progressing through youth, adolescence, and prime, to elder age, dotage, and death. Life was too short to spend long in childhood. Knights were dubbed and empowered to fight at age 13, one reason so much armor seems so small to modern eyes. Children were apprenticed early to craftsmen and usually were ready for work at age 12. Some people lived long lives. Queen Eleanore of Aquitaine lived to age 83. However, infections in the absence of antibiotics and antimicrobials were as serious weapons as poisons or bullets. An average medieval man or woman in 11th- to 15th-century western Europe lived to approximately age 33.
鉴于平均寿命较短，在青春期前结婚是例行公事，而且童婚很常见。童婚是为了王朝、政治和经济目的而将年轻人结合起来。父母为他们的孩子订婚，并早早地安排他们结婚，这往往在青春期之前。在12世纪，一个男婴新郎死了，把他10岁的寡妇留给了她的母亲监护，她控制着女儿在婚姻中继承的土地。这位母亲还控制着她10岁的已婚儿子和他的妻子的土地，而这位女继承人在5岁时就拥有一个巨大的英国庄园。
Given the shortness of the average life span, marriage by the time of puberty was routine, and child marriage was common. Child marriage was the uniting of youngsters for dynastic, political, and economic purposes. Parents betrothed their children and wed them early, often before puberty. In the 12th century a baby boy groom died and left his 10-year-old widow in the custody of her mother, who controlled her daughter’s lands inherited in marriage. This mother also controlled those of her 10-year-old married son and his wife, an heiress who owned a huge English manor by age five.
封建制度
封建制度是界定中世纪社会的四个主要现象之一，其他三个是大学、公司和城市。土地是一种宝贵但有限的资产，特别是当它位置很好时，昂贵的羊群在上面吃草，重要的农作物在上面收获，珍贵的矿物在下面被开采出来。土地为食物、衣服和住所提供必要的生存产品，为国内贸易和出口提供有价值的作物。保有制（盎格鲁-诺曼语，“持有”）是征服者威廉国王（1066-87年）在1066年后在英格兰建立的土地所有权制度，以偿还追随者过去的军事服务，并使他们承担未来的义务、物资和服务。威廉国王通过赠与土地购买了主要贵族的忠诚，以提供政治支持和战斗人员。贵族们保护他们的附庸，这些附庸从他们的霸主那里获得土地，以换取效忠和敬意。在附庸之下是封臣（拉丁语，vassi vassorum，“附庸的附庸”），一种紧随男爵之下的封建佃户。每个封建阶级都通过特权、责任、忠诚和依附关系联系在一起，形成政治之链和等级森严的世界秩序，即被基督教会神圣化的世界秩序。
Feudalism was one of four major phenomena that defined medieval society; the other three were the university, the corporation, and the city. Land was a valuable though limited asset, especially when it was well located, expensive sheep grazed it, important crops were harvested from it, and precious minerals were mined from beneath it. Land produced necessary subsistence products for food, clothing, and shelter and valuable crops for domestic trade and for exports. Tenure (Anglo-Norman, “to hold”) was the landholding system that King William the Conqueror (r. 1066–87) established in England after the year 1066 to pay off followers for their past military service and to obligate them to future duties, goods, and services. With land grants King William purchased the loyalty of chief nobles to provide political support and fighting men. The nobility protected their vassals, who held land from their overlord in return for allegiance and homage. Beneath the vassal was a vavasour (Latin, vassi vassorum, “vassal of vassals”), a feudal tenant who ranked immediately below a baron. Each feudal class was linked to each by privileges, by responsibilities, by loyalty, and by dependency, creating the political great chain of being and hieratic world order, the ordo mundi, sanctified by the Christian Church.
封建制度是从两个主要传统中发展起来的。正如罗马历史学家普布利乌斯·科尔奈利乌斯·塔西佗（Gaius Cornelius Tacitus，约56-117年）在其关于日耳曼部落的论文《日耳曼尼亚》中所描述的那样，被称为comitatus的日耳曼战队是由一群战士组成的，他们彼此之间以及对其领袖有相互的义务和特权。这是骑士和领主之间的义务交换的一个起源。封建制度的力量同样来自于罗马的土地使用权。
Feudalism developed from two major traditions. As the Roman historian Gaius Cornelius Tacitus (c. 56–c. 117) described it in his treatise on the German tribes, Germania, the Germanic war band called the comitatus was a group of warriors joined by mutual obligations and privileges to one another and to their leader. This was one origin of the exchange of obligations between knights and overlords. Feudalism equally derived its power from Roman land tenure.
封建金字塔形象地代表了封建制度在土地所有者、国王和国家之间错综复杂的关系。处于金字塔顶端的是国王或国家，即土地所有者。在早期日耳曼法律中，Allodium是指以绝对所有权持有的土地财产，无需为上级或领主服务。与之相对的是feudum（拉丁语，“奖赏”，或feud、fee或fief），是一种土地使用权施加严格义务的财产。在Allodial所有者下面的层级中，主要的承租人是capiti（拉丁语，“首席承租人”），是唯一直接从Allodial所有者那里持有土地的人。从首席承租人开始，下面所有其他人都通过分封的方式持有土地，被称为分租人。分封制将财产利益授予越来越小的保有权持有人，每个租户都对上一级的土地所有者负有经济、服务和其他责任。
The feudal pyramid graphically represented feudalism’s intricate relationships among landholders, the king, and the state. At the pyramid’s apex was the king or the state, the allodial owner. An allodium in early Germanic law was an estate in land held in absolute ownership without service to a superior or to an overlord. Its opposite was a feudum (Latin, “a reward”), or feud, fee, or fief, a property in which tenure imposed strict duties. In the stratum below the allodial owner was the chief tenant, the tenant in capiti (Latin, “tenant in chief”), the only person holding land directly from the allodial owner. From the chief tenant all others below held land by the process of subinfudation and were called subtenants. Subinfudation granted property interests to smaller and smaller holders of tenure, each tenant owing economic, service, and other incidents to the landholder one level above.
土地保有权
土地保有权有四种基本类型。骑士的土地保有权是以军事服务换取土地权。Frankalmoigne（封建英格兰的封建土地保有权之一，教会机构持有土地，无需服兵役）用宗教服务换取土地。Sergeanty（源自拉丁语serviens，在欧洲封建社会中也拼写为sergeantry、serjeanty或serjeantry，是一种土地保有权形式，作为对领主（无论是国王还是其他人）提供特定服务的回报而授予的。军士包括工匠、领主领地内的执事、家仆，有时还包括为领主提供某种形式的军事服务的人。当没有土地时，军士就留在领主的家里。那些佃农要缴纳许多封建税款，但可以免除纳税和从事某些劳动。）身份产生了个人服务，大Sergeanty（军士）身份偏向于法律和法庭职位，小Sergeanty（军士）身份偏向于家庭佣人。Socage（英国封建制度中的封建义务和土地保有权形式之一，它最终演变成被称为“由光荣但非精神、军事或服务性质的服务持有的自由土地保有权”的永久保有权，不涉及封建义务。农民持有土地，以换取定期向封建领主支付明确规定的固定报酬。因此，领主有义务向农民提供某些服务，例如保护，并向王室提供其他职责。付款通常采用现金形式，但有时也可以用货物进行）提供经济和田间劳动。
Land tenure had four basic types. Knight’s tenure traded military service for land rights. Frankalmoigne exchanged religious services for land. Sergeanty generated personal services, with grand sergeanty for legal and court positions and petit sergeanty for household retainers. Socage provided economic and field labor.
骑士土地保有权
骑士文学中亚瑟王宫廷的骑士身披闪亮盔甲，拯救和爱护精致的少女，并与恶龙战斗，而历史上的骑士（盎格鲁撒克逊语cniht，“年轻人”、“侍从”）是国王或贵族的军事伙伴，在封建骑士任期内，他们以军事服务换取土地所有权。在骑士任期内，骑士要履行军事服务和封建义务，这些都是具体的义务，包括致敬、封地、政治和经济责任。一系列被称为援助的紧急财政支付要求骑士为其领主支付赎金，并在领主的儿子受封为骑士或女儿结婚时支付强制性礼物。封建的婚姻事件赋予了领主为其佃户的继承人选择新娘的权利，或出售这一权利。骑士的女儿想要嫁给一个自己选择的男人，通常必须通过购买来摆脱她父亲对其领主所负的土地使用权义务。
While a literary knight of King Arthur’s court jousted in shining armor, rescued and loved exquisite damsels, and fought fiery dragons, the historical knight (Anglo-Saxon cniht, “young man”) was a military associate of a king or nobleman who under feudal knight’s tenure exchanged military service for landholding. Under knight’s tenure the knight owed martial service and feudal incidents that were specific obligations including homage, fealty, political, and economic responsibilities. A series of emergency financial payments called aids required the knight to pay ransom payments for his overlord and mandatory gifts at the knighting of the overlord’s son or the marriage of his daughter. The feudal incident of marriage granted the overlord the right to choose a bride for his tenant’s heir or to sell that right. A knight’s daughter wanting to marry a man of her own choice usually had to buy her way out of the tenurial obligation her father owed to his overlord.
骑士对其领主的致敬和忠诚的义务在实践和表达上，与骑士对上帝的宗教义务和责任有着惊人的相似之处。同样，骑士也要向他心爱的世俗女士，即Donna（意大利语： [ˈdɔnna]，这是对女性，尤其是成熟女性的常见尊称），以及教会中高高在上的圣母玛利亚表示敬意和忠诚。
A knight’s obligation of homage and fealty to his overlord had fascinating parallels in practice and expression to the knight’s religious duties and responsibilities to the Lord God. Likewise, the knight owed homage and fealty to his beloved secular lady, the donna, and to the church’s exalted Lady Mary.
被发现犯有叛国罪或违反誓言的佃农骑士将受到没收的惩罚，即被迫放弃土地所有权。救济金是佃农骑士的继承人为拥有继承土地的权利而支付的钱。如果一个骑士死了，而他的继承人是21岁以下的未成年人，那么领主既要收取死亡赔偿金，又要提供土地的管理权。在管理权下，领主占有财产，并收取所有租金和土地利润。如果一个佃农骑士死后没有继承人，那么财产就会通过遗赠程序归属领主。兵役免除稅（拉丁语scutum，“盾牌”）是封建法律规定的一种罚款或税收，如果持有骑士费的租户拒绝或无法提供军事服务以换取土地使用权，则该租户应向领主支付这种罚款或税收，也叫“盾牌服务”。Escuage（骑士所需服兵役的费用），骑士自费加入国王的战争，为期40天，或派人代替，或支付金钱（来“买断”兵役）。
The tenant knight found guilty of treason or breach of an oath of fealty was punished by forfeiture, the forced giving up of land possession. Relief was the money a knight tenant’s heir paid for the right to possess inherited land. If a knight died and his heir was a minor, below age 21, the overlord both collected a death payment and provided stewardship of the land. Under wardship the overlord took possession of the property and collected all rents and profits from the land. If a tenant knight died without heirs, the property reverted to the overlord by the process of escheat. Scutage (Latin scutum, “shield”) was a fine or tax under feudal law that a tenant holding a knight’s fee owed to an overlord if the knight refused to or was unable to provide military service in return for the land tenure. Also called shield service, escuage, the knight joined the king at war for 40 days at his own cost or sent a substitute or a monetary payment, scutage.
英格兰国王约翰（1199-1216年）由于需要钱来为他的对外战争提供资金，他残酷地实施了紧急财政支付、兵役免除稅、破坏性征税和压迫性的封建义务。这些都是不满的贵族们于1215年在兰尼米德（Runnymede）与他会面的主要原因，他们在那里迫使国王签署了有63条条款的《大宪章》（拉丁语，“great charter”）。这份强有力的文件影响了后来英国、欧洲和美国的基本权利与宪法的概念，如禁止在没有代表的情况下征税和由同行陪审团审判。《大宪章》确立了新的国家法律，即只有王国的普通议会才能征收杂费和补助金，而且，除了为赎回骑士的尸体、为其长子授勋和为其长女结婚所需的补助金外，其他的补助金都是有限和合理的。此外，任何自由人都不得被审判、惩罚、放逐、监禁或剥夺土地，除非被平等的陪审团判定有罪（第39条）。
England’s King John (r. 1199–1216), in his need of money to finance his foreign wars, had brutally enforced aids, scutage, ruinous taxation, and oppressive feudal obligations. These were the major reasons why disgruntled nobles met him in 1215 at Runnymede, where they forced the king to sign the 63-clause Magna Carta (Latin, “great charter”). That powerful document influenced later British, European, and American concepts of basic rights and constitutions, such as prohibition of taxation without representation and trial by jury of peers. The Magna Carta established as new law of the land that scutage and aids were to be levied only by the common council of the kingdom, and, except for aids required for ransoming the knight’s body, knighting his oldest son, and marrying his oldest daughter, were to be limited and reasonable. Moreover, no freeman was to be tried, punished, exiled, imprisoned, or stripped of land except when convicted of crime by a jury of equals (clause 39).
Frankalmoigne
Frankalmoigne是一种精神上的保有权。作为对土地所有权的回报，神职人员或教会团体在赠与人活着时为其发放救济金并做弥撒或祈祷，在他死后为其灵魂祈祷。
Frankalmoigne was spiritual tenure. In return for an estate in land, a clergyman or an ecclesiastical corporation distributed alms and said masses or prayers for the grantor when alive and in honor of his soul after his death.
Sergeanty
Sergeanty（军士）是为国王提供个人服务的封建土地使用权。大Sergeanty（军士）包括影响国家防御的大多数头衔。大Sergeanty（军士）是国王的Marshal（中世纪国王、王子或贵族家庭中的高级官员，最初负责骑兵，但后来通常指挥军队）、旗手、律师和Cornage（拉丁文Cornus，“喇叭”，一种古老的土地保有权，要求佃户通过吹号角来发出入侵通知）专家，即吹喇叭的人，他们随时准备好并能够发出警报，提醒人们注意危险。小Sergeanty（军士）或更小的Sergeanty（军士）提供厨师、裁判员、宴会厅和厨房服务，从仪式的调查员到厨房和炉灶火的木材采集员。
Sergeanty was the feudal land tenure providing personal service to the king. Grand sergeanty included most titles affecting the defense of the country. Grand sergeants were the king’s marshal, banner bearer, attorney, and expert in cornage (Latin cornus, “horn”), the horn blower whose readiness and ability to sound an alarm alerted people to danger. Petit or petty sergeanty provided the cooks, quistrons, and banquet hall and kitchen services ranging from the surveyor of ceremonies down through the wood gatherers for the fires of kitchen and hearth.
Socage
在socage制度下，对地主负有义务的土地所有者被称为soke man；他需要支付诸如封建、救济（继承土地的特权）、escheat（无继承人的土地所有者死亡时将土地归属领主）和法庭持有等封建义务。村民是封建农奴、乡村劳动者或农民，通过占有土地、耕种土地并向领主提供劳动报酬而持有土地使用权。Average是农奴和他的牛为封建领主所做的工作。(在国际贸易中，海损是对运输的货物征收的一种海事或海关税。在西方语言中，这个词的历史始于中世纪地中海的海上贸易。12世纪和13世纪的热那亚拉丁语“avaria”的意思是“与商船航行有关的损坏、损失和非正常费用”，英语含义的巨大转变始于中世纪晚期和近代早期西方商船法合同的实践，根据该合同，如果船舶遇到猛烈风暴，则必须将一些货物扔到海里，以使船舶更轻、更安全，那么所有货物在船上的商人都将受到相应的损失（而不是把货物扔到海里的人）；更一般地说，任何avaria都应按比例分配。从那时起，这个词被英国保险公司、债权人和商人所采用，用于谈论他们的损失分散在整个资产组合中，并且具有平均比例)
Under socage, the landholder owing obligations to a landowner was called a soke man; he was required to pay such feudal incidents as fealty, relief (for the privilege of inheriting land), escheat (reverting of land to the overlord at death of an heirless landholder), and court holding. A villein was a feudal serf, a country laborer, or a peasant holding land in tenure by possessing it, working it, and providing labor payments to the overlord. Average was work done for the feudal lord by the serf and his oxen. (In international trade an average was a maritime or customs tax on shipped goods.)
村民提供周工作（盎格鲁撒克逊语wicweorc，每周的工作，租户每周很多天为领主所做的工作），即在领主的领地——家庭农场上的劳动，有时是七天中的三天。此外，还提供额外的工作，即在领地上耕作和收割等季节性工作。在英国，领地是指为自己使用而占有的土地，属于自己，即tenere in domineo；以自由使用权占有的土地，而不是以服务方式占有的土地，即tenere in servitio。有些恩惠工作是酒水恩惠，为劳动者提供免费的啤酒和晚餐。nuncheon（我们现代的午餐一词可能来自于此）是为田间劳动者提供的免费午间酒、苹果酒、果汁或水。
The villein provided week work (AngloSaxon wicweorc), the labor on the lord’s own demesne, the home farm, sometimes three days out of seven. This was augmented by boon work, the extra work for demesne haymaking or harvesting. In England a demesne was land held in possession for one’s own use, belonging to oneself, tenere in domineo, lands possessed by free tenure, as opposed to lands held in service, tenere in servitio. Some boon work was wet boon, providing the laborer free ale and dinner. A nuncheon, from which our modern word luncheon may be derived, was a free noontime quench of wine, cider, juice, or water for laborers in the fields.
次封地（指在国王或其他上级领主统治下持有土地的佃农，通过转租或转让其部分土地来依次开辟新的、独特的保有权的做法）导致封建金字塔底部的土地所有者的义务越来越小，这是一种无效的创造收益的方法，它还抑制了经济增长。1290年，英格兰议会颁布了一项名为Quia emptores（拉丁语，“because the buyers”，禁止佃农通过分封地的方式将其土地转让给他人，而是要求所有希望转让土地的佃农必须通过替代方式转让土地）的法规。这条法律禁止永久产权地产的分封，从这一年开始，所有的土地转让都是通过替代的方式进行的。将土地权利和责任从一个拥有者转移到另一个拥有者，基本上摧毁了封建的金字塔，并创造了现代财产法。Quia emptores颁布之后，国王和领主重新获得了土地使用权协议的大部分利润。然后，领主们可以自由地授予采邑授与得益人（cestui que uses，拉丁语，“拥有使用权的人”），即使用和获得土地和建筑物的利润与利益的权利，而另一个人对这些土地和建筑物拥有合法的所有权、拥有权和维护责任。
Subinfudation led to increasingly small obligations of landholders at the base of the feudal pyramid, an ineffectual method of generating cash. It also inhibited economic growth. In the year 1290 England’s Parliament enacted a statute called Quia emptores (Latin, “because the buyers”). This law forbade subinfudation of freehold estates. All land transfers from that year forward were by the process of substitution. Substituting land rights and responsibilities from one possessor to another essentially destroyed the feudal pyramid and created modern property law. After Quia emptores, king and overlords regained most profits from land tenure agreements. Overlords then had freedom to grant cestui que uses (Latin, “he who has use”), the right to use and obtain profits and benefits of land and buildings for which another person had legal title, possession, and responsibility to defend.
通过颁布名为《使用权法》（通过将其土地所有权交由受托人为其自身的唯一利益（“使用”）来解决，以防止任何土地所有者逃避“救济”和监护权（封建继承税））的法律，强大的、但却缺乏现金的国王亨利八世后来废除了无产权使用权。1536年，亨利国王向不情愿的议会强行颁布法律，将使用土地的衡平法权利转化为法定所有权和占有权。他将“使用权”转变为完全所有权。
By enacting the law called the Statute of Uses, powerful though cash-poor King Henry VIII later abolished cestui que use without title. In 1536 King Henry forced upon an unwilling Parliament the law to convert the equitable right to use land into legal title and right to possess. He transformed cestui que use to full ownership.
《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）
By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones
未完待续！
