Earth Science

地质时间表∶不需要记忆全部的年代，但需要记住一些重要的年代：

Cretaceous 白垩纪，一次生物的大灭绝，其中的代表动物为恐龙；

Jurassic 侏罗纪，蕨类植物常见，恐龙繁盛时期；

Cambrian 寒武纪，脊索动物首次出现。

地球结构：

Core 地核∶分为 outer core 和 inner core 两部分。外地核是流动的，主要包含了铁（iron）元素和硫（sulfur）元素；内地核是固体，主要包含了铁元素和镍（nickel）元素。

Mantle 地幔∶主要由岩石组成

Crust 地壳∶地球的最表面，我们生活的地方，也是主要由岩石组成

Asthenosphere 软流层∶地幔的一部分，为缓慢流动的岩石

Lithosphere 岩石圈∶包含了地幔的上部和地壳

板块运动的几种形式∶

1. Divergent plate boundary 离散板块边界∶Two plates are moving away from each other. This causes a gap that can be filled with magma, and when it cools new crust is formed.

2. Convergent plate boundary 聚合板块边界∶ Two plates are pushed toward each other， usually causing a subduction zone（俯冲带）or orogenic belt（造山带）. One of the plates will be pushed deep into the mantle.

举例∶板块交界处的山脉（如喜马拉雅山脉）

3. Transform（fault） boundary 转换断层∶Two plates slide from side to side relative to each other. This often causes earthquakes.

地震

Focus 震源∶ The location at which the earthquake begins within the Earth

Epicenter 震中∶The exact point on the surface of Earth directly above the location where rock ruptures during an earthquake.

Richter scale 里氏震级∶一次地震中最强烈的地表运动，分为10级

Seismograph 地震仪∶测量地震的强度，而不是预测地震

火山∶

Active volcano 活火山∶正在喷发或有喷发纪录

Dormant volcano 休眠火山∶有史以来曾经喷发过.但长期以来处于相对静止状态的火山，未来有喷发的可能性

Extinct volcano 死火山∶不会再次喷发

季节

Seasons are a result of the tilt of the Earth's axis.

春分（3.21）、秋分（9.23）时，全球昼夜等长，太阳直射赤道

夏至（6.22）时，北半球昼达到最长，北极圈内出现极昼现象，南半球全部相反，太阳直射北回归线

冬至（12.22）时，北半球昼达到最短，北极圈内出现极夜现象，南半球全部相反，太阳直射南回归线

Tropic of Cancer 北回归线，Tropic of Capricorn 南回归线

The differences in heating from the equator to the poles help create our global wind pattern.

The Atmosphere

大气层的组成（从低到高）∶troposphere，stratosphere，mesosphere，thermosphere，exosphere

Troposphere 对流层∶人类生活的主要区域，温室效应的出现。温室效应是H2O和CO2等温室气体吸收了从地面反射到空中的太阳辐射，使得气温升高形成的。主要区域温度随着海拔的上升而下降。

注意在 tropopause（对流顶层的过渡带），温度随着海拔的上升而上升。

Stratosphere 平流层∶温度随着海拔的上升而上升，臭氧在这一层中起到吸收紫外线的保护作用。

Mesosphere 中间层∶ 流星在本层燃烧

Thermosphere 热层∶大气最为稀薄，也被称之为ionosphere电离层

Exosphere 逃逸层

天气和气候

Weather: day-to-day properties 

Climate: long-run patterns

Coriolis effect 科里奥利效应∶地转偏向力，北半球右偏，南半球左偏

Cyclone 气旋∶低气压中心，由于科里奥利效应，北半球逆时针，南半球顺时针

Hurricane 飓风（大西洋）和 typhoon台风（太平洋）都属于气旋

Trade winds 信风∶北半球东北信风，南半球东南信风，存在于低纬度地区

Westerlies 西风和西风带∶由科里奥利效应导致，存在于中纬度地区

赤道低气压带∶warm air rises; low temperature

低纬度地区（0°-30°）∶信风带，气候干燥炎热

副热带高气压带∶ air descends; high pressure

中纬度地区（30°-60°）∶西风带，气候温和湿润

副极地低气压带∶ polar front; warmer air rises; low pressure

高纬度地区（60°-90°）∶极地东风带，气候干燥寒冷

横向∶horizontal airflow

纵向∶convection current

气流从高压流向低压，形成循环（Hadley Cell，Ferrel CellPolar Cell都是由于这个原理）

两个无风带∶

赤道无风带（南北纬 5°之间）∶equatorial doldrums

副热带无风带（南北纬 30°-35°之间）∶ horse latitudes

季风Monsoon

成因：海陆热力性质差异，陆地受热较快，海洋受热较慢

夏季季风由海洋吹向陆地，温暖湿润；冬季季风由陆地吹向海洋，寒冷干燥。

雨影效应Rain shadow effect

迎风坡降水较多（windward condensation），背风坡降水较少（leeward warming）

背风坡通常为干旱或半干旱气候

El Nino 厄尔尼诺现象∶

Key words: Pacific Ocean; result of a decrease in upselling; a dramatic decline in many fish populations; flooding in Peru; drought in Brazil and parts of Indonesia

引起厄尔尼诺现象的原因∶

1. Trade winds weaken and warm water moves eastward

2. Upper ocean layer keeps nutrient-rich water from upwelling along coast of the Americans

3. Ocean heat is released into atmosphere and alters path of jet stream

La Nina拉尼娜现象（又称反厄尔尼诺）∶

More Atlantic coast hurricanes as well as colder winters in the northeastern United States but warmer, drier winters in the southeastern United States.

Water Resources

地球上75%是水，主要为海水，淡水仅占小部分。

淡水分层∶

Littoral zone: very shallow water at the shoreline; abundant sunlight; extend to the depth at which rooted plants stop growing

Limnetic zone: surface of open water; extends to the depoth that sunlight can penetrate; organisms are short-lived and rely on sunlight to carry out photosynthesis 

Profundal zone: an aphotic zone (no sunlight)

Benthic zone: deepest layer; very low temperatures and low oxygen levels

Groundwater 地下水∶

Fills underground porous spaces, from wells or aquifers (non-renewable). Water mining: withdrawals from aquifers

保护地下水∶

1.subsidize water conservation strategies

2.implement water conservation practices in residential homes 

3.increase the price of water to discourage waste 

4. reduce the number of water-intensive crops being grown

Surface water 地表水∶

Includes rivers, lakes, wetlands, estuaries, and oceans.

Hydroelectric power station 水力发电站

流程∶Create freshwater reservoirs→flooding→stores the surface water runoff

e.g.Three Gorges Dam 三峡大坝，为世界上规模最大的水电站

三峡大坝的争议∶水库中的植被腐坏会导致大量甲烷逸出，需要迁移人口等

Water transfer projects 调水工程

将水资源从丰富地区运到不足地区， Aral Sea， California， China都有开展调水工程

海水分层∶

Coastal zone: closest to land; between the shore and the end of the continental shelf

Euphotic zone: photic, upper layers; warmest region of oceans; highest levels of dissolved oxygen Bathyal zone: middle region; insufficient light for photosynthesis; colder

Abyssal zone: deepest region; extremely cold temperatures; very low levels of dissolved oxygen; very high levels of nutrients

Upwellings: provide a new nutrient supply for the growth of living organisms in the photic regions

Red tides: toxic algal bloom

洋流

形成原因∶ sunlight; prevailing winds; differences in salinity; Earth's rotation

水资源利用现状：

Less than 1% water is available as freshwater

缺水的形容词 water-stressed < water-scarce

保护水资源的方法

1. Proper irrigation could reduce water loss (e.g. drip irrigation; center pivot; soil moisture monitors)

2. Improving industrial and residential water conservation (e.g.fix leaks; recycle water)

3. Increasing fresh water supplies (e.g. desalination →reverse osmosis, use external pressure; distillation, heat saltwater until evaporation)

家庭用水中占比最多的是冲厕所，总体用水中占比最多的是灌溉

SOIL

岩石循环

Igneous rock 火山岩∶岩浆凝固后形成，代表为花岗岩（basalt）

Sedimentary rock 沉积岩∶沉积物压缩而成，通常存在于 subduction zone，代表为石灰石（limestone）

Metamorphic rock 变质岩∶高压高热作用形成，可发生于地幔，代表为大理岩（slate）

土壤的种类∶

按照颗粒大小∶clay<silt<sand，含有三种颗粒且含量大致相等的土壤叫做loamy，最适合耕种

按照 pH∶ acidity酸度 & alkalinity 碱度

土壤的形成∶ weathering

Physical (mechanical) weathering: any weathering process without changing chemistry Chemical weathering: result of chemical interactions (e.g. rust)Biological weathering: result of activities of living organisms

土壤的分层（horizons）∶

O horizon: the uppermost horizon; primarily made of organic material;organic decomposition forms humus 

A horizon (topsoil): made of weathered rock and organic material travelled down from O layer; important for plants'growth; zone of leaching

E horizon: clay, iron, aluminum oxides

B horizon: minerals leached from A layer and organic matters washed down from topsoil; illuviation due to gravity; zone of accumulation

C horizon: the bottommost horizon; large pieces of rocks

土地问题∶

1. monoculture 单作∶不利于土壤保护，会造成一系列问题，比如生物多样性下降、土壤营养值下降、病虫害增多等等。应对方案为 crop rotation轮作。

2. reliance on large machinery: result of the Green Revolution

3. salinization盐碱化∶会导致 soil degradation，应对方案为 drip irrigation 滴灌。

4. soil erosion: result from logging, slash-and-burn agriculture, over-cultivation,overgrazing, urbanization,etc.

土壤保护∶

1. Use of animal waste(manure), compost,and the residue of plants to increase the amount of organic matter in the soil. 增加土壤中的有机物含量

2. Practice of organic agriculture,a method of farming that utilizes compost, manure, crop rotation,and non-chemical methods to manage soil fertility and pest control.实行有机农业

3. Modification of tillage practices to reduce the breakup of soil and to reduce the amount of erosion, including contour plowing and strip planting.根据等高线种植

4.Use of trees and other wind barriers to reduce the force of the wind.建立防风带

相关法案∶

Soil and Water Conservation Act 

Food Security Act

AGRICULTURE

农业类型

Slash-and-burn agriculture: cutting down and burning; severely reduces the amount of available forest Traditional or subsistence agriculture:provides one family's food

Plantation agriculture: common in developing countries; cultivates cash crops; requires chemical fertilizers and pesticides; monoculture

Industrialized agriculture: high efficiency; uses fossil fuels, irrigation water, inorganic chemical fertilizers,and pesticides

农业引起的问题∶

Soil erosion∶过度灌溉引起土壤侵蚀

Deforestation∶森林砍伐破坏了动物栖息地和生态平衡

Fertilizer runoff∶滥用肥料导致严重的富营养化

Irrigation damage soil∶灌溉问题引起土壤被降解

Soil salinization∶过度砍伐、过度放牧、浸灌、地下水上升都会导致土壤中盐分过高

Waterlogging∶降水过多，排水不及时

Desertification∶人口的迅速增长，土地滥用

Green Revolution绿色革命∶

The development of high-yielding monoculture crops; the use of large inputs of inorganic fertilizer; heavy use of pesticides; intensive irrigation

关于害虫的防治

Cultural (physical) control Chemical control: pesticides 

Biological control

Pesticides: kill harmless animals; affect whole food chains; be persistent; lead pests develop resistance 

Types: broad spectrum pesticides, narrow spectrum pesticides(target species), herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides; insecticides

Influence of pesticides:

The pesticide treadmill∶害虫的抗药性提高，使得杀虫剂浓度不断提升

The cost of applying a pesticide to the crops will influence the price of food

FIFRA: requires the EPA to approve the use of all pesticides in the U.S.

IPM∶integrated pestmanagement 利用害虫的天敌、庄稼的轮作，干扰其繁殖交配，减少杀虫剂的使用

Silent Spring: Rachel Carson, raise people's awareness of DDT

Genetically modified organisms(GMO)

转基因产品具有争议，到现在还不知道究竟转基因产品会如何影响人类

粮食和营养问题

Undernutrition∶没有足够的营养去保持健康

Malnutrition∶营养不均衡

Kwashiorkor∶恶性营养不良，缺乏蛋白质

Marasmus∶过度消瘦，缺乏胡萝卜素和蛋白质

Anemia∶缺铁，贫血

Prevent soil degradation:

Contour plowing 

Terracing 

No-till methods 

Crop rotation

Intercropping (strip cropping)

Forestry

Types:

Old growth forest: never been cut

Second growth forest: cutting has occurred and a new, younger forest has arisen naturally

Plantations/tree farms: planted by humans and harvested for commercial use

Deforestation:

Clear-cutting: removal of all of the trees in an area

Selective cutting: removal of select trees in an area; uneven-aged management; shelter-wood cutting

Influence:

1. 降低土壤肥力→nutrients are removed；soil erosion may be rapid；the soil below coniferous forests is often of poor quality for agriculture

2. 洪水和塌方 → water may accumulate rapidly in river valleys，often causing landslips from steep hillside

3. 物质循环变化→CO2 concentration increases due to less photosynthesis; O2 concentration decreases; the atmosphere may become drier and the soil wetter due to less evaporation and transpiration

4. 气候变化 → water cycle changes due to less rainfall； rapid heat absorption by bare soil raises the temperature of the lower atmosphere in some areas, causing thermal gradients which results in more frequent and intense winds

5.物种灭绝→mountain gorillas（central Africa）；golden line tamarins （Brazil）； ospreys （north Europe）； some medical plants

相关法案

Wilderness Act: road free areas; Wildlife Refuges and National Park Systems with restriction 

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act: National Wild and Scenic Rivers System

Greenbelt∶城市外围的绿化带，能够提高附近人们的生活质量和限制城市增长

森林火灾∶

Surface fires: only burn the underbrush and do little damage to the forest; actually protect the forest Crown fires: burn the canopies and spread quickly; do huge damage to the forest

Ground fires: burn underground in swamps ancd bogs; can be difficult to detect and extinguish

"controlled burn"∶指人为的制造一些可控的着火，以起到保护森林的作用

Forest protection:

As a cash crop, providing timber for building or for fuel 

To reserve soil erosion

To provide valuable wildlife habitats

As recreational areas, proving leisure activities such as camping and mountain biking

Rangelands

Desertification 沙漠化∶ removal of native vegetation

Overgrazing 过度放牧∶occurs when a plant re-grazed before the roots recover Pastures become less productive, soils have less organic matter, biodiversity decreases

牧场管理方法∶

Controlling the number and distribution of livestock to limit the carrying capacity 

Restoring degraded rangelands

To recover the rangeland, moving livestock from one place to another 

Fencing off riparian areas to reduce damage to these sensitive areas 

Suppressing the growth of invasive plant species

Replanting barren rangeland with native grass seed to reduce soil erosion 

Providing supplemental feed at selected sites

Locating water holes, water tanks, and salt blocks atstrategic points that do not degrade the environment

Other Land Use

Urbanization: rapid population growth

城市化的利弊可以通过土地、教育、回收系统、卫生系统、税收、工业等方面考虑

Transportation system: Federal Highway System

Channelization of Rivers: increases the flow rate of the river and increases the risk of flooding downstream

道路建设的影响∶ fragmentation of habitat; perilous road crossings by wildlife; provides access to heavy equipment for large-scale resource extraction

公共和联邦土地∶

U.S. Federal Agencies: preservation, recreation, and development of natural resources

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM): multiple-use and sustained yields of various products and services;responsible for subsurface mineral resources 

National parks

Land conservation options: preservation,remediation, mitigation, restoration, and sustainable land use strategies

Bioremediation∶ 生物，尤其是真菌和细菌，分解一些有害物质从而达到对于环境的恢复

Mitigation 减缓政策∶restore a wetland of equal area in another location

Sustainability∶保护物种多样性、动植物栖息地、生态系统，增加开采资源的税收，给予补偿等

Mining

Metallic/nonmetallic minerals

Mineral deposit: a particular mineral is concentrated

Ore: a rock or mineral from which a valuable substance can be extracted at a profit Gangue: waste material, and piles of gangues are called tailings

矿产资源通常会存在于板块的边界处

采矿类型∶

Strip mining （open-pit mining）露天采矿∶must remove the overburden to reach the mineral; using explosives and heavy equipment

Surface mining 表层采矿∶ lie in horizontal beds close to the earth's surface

Mountaintop removal 山顶搬移∶ removing the top of a mountain; remove coals with shovels or bulldozers

Open-pit mining 露天采矿∶ using explosives and heavy equipment

Subsurface mining 地下采矿∶ deep vertical mine shafts（too far underground）

Drilling 钻井技术∶ using pressure to remove liquids and gases

Acid mine drainage 排泄酸性矿水∶sulfur compounds in mine waste，causing a sulfuric acid solution

Smelting 熔炼∶ heating of ores， causing air pollution and acid rain

Cyanide solution mining or heap-leach extraction 氰化物溶液采矿∶spraying cyanide solutions on piles of crushed ore

相关法案

Mining Act: governed prospecting and mining of minerals on publicly owned land

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act: mined land be restored to its pre-mining state

环境问题∶ habitats above the deposit are destroyed

Fishing

捕鱼的方式∶

Long-line fishing: incidental catching; controversy method

Purse-seine fishing: a net is used to surround a large school of fish; by-catch includes any fish

Trawler fishing: large metal chain baskets holding nets; scrape up just about everything on the ocean floor Drift-net fishing: catch large numbers of individuals from non-target species

Aquaculture (fish farming): farming aquatic organism

Concerns: bycatch; nutrient pollution; excessive antibiotic use; changes to genetic diversity; degradation of aquatic ecosystem

相关法案∶

Marine Mammal Protection Act: establish a federal responsibility to conserve marine mammals

Endangered Species Act: provide broad protection for threatened and endangered species of fish, wildlife, and plants

Global Economics

Tragedy of the Commons

A resource that is free and available to evervone is a common, which is vulnerable.

避免公地悲剧∶regulations or restrictions; privatize a common