【简译】中世纪日本的日常生活
Daily life in medieval Japan (1185-1606 CE) was, for most people, the age-old struggle to put food on the table, build a family, stay healthy, and try to enjoy the finer things in life whenever possible. The upper classes had better and more colourful clothes, used expensive foreign porcelain, were entertained by Noh theatre and could afford to travel to other parts of Japan while the lower classes had to make do with plain cotton, ate rice and fish, and were mostly preoccupied with surviving the occasional famine, outbreaks of disease, and the civil wars that blighted the country. Still, many of the cultural pursuits of medieval Japan continue to thrive today, from drinking green tea to playing the go board game, from owning a fine pair of chopsticks to remembering ancestors every July/August in the Obon festival.
对于多数中世纪（1185-1606）的日本人来说，其日常生活就是为了养家糊口、保持健康，并尽可能地享受生活中的美好事物。上层阶级的衣服更好更鲜艳，用的是昂贵的进口瓷器，看能剧自娱自乐，有能力去日本其他地方旅行；而下层阶级则只能穿朴素的棉衣（日本从 15 世纪开始从中国进口原棉和棉制品，稍后又从印度进口。这种情况一直持续到16世纪，日本人采用了中国的棉花种植方法，开始在国内生产棉花，详情参看：https://www.kimonoboy.com/short_history.html），吃米饭和鱼，最重要的是，他们担心如何在周期性的饥荒、疾病爆发和蹂躏国家的内战中生存下来。尽管如此，中世纪日本的许多文化活动至今仍蓬勃发展，从品茶（绿茶）到棋盘游戏，从拥有一双精美的筷子到每年七、八月的盂兰盆节追思祭祖。
社会方面
Japanese medieval society was divided into classes based on their economic function. At the top was the warrior class of samurai or bushi (which had its own internal distinctions based on the feudal relationship between lord and vassal), the land-owning aristocrats, priests, farmers and peasants (who paid a land tax to the landowners or the state), artisans and merchants. Curiously, the merchants were considered socially inferior to farmers in the medieval period. There were, too, a number of social outcasts which included those who worked in messy or 'undesirable' professions like butchers and tanners, actors, undertakers, and criminals. There was some movement between the classes such as peasants becoming warriors, especially during the frequent civil wars of the period, but there were also legal barriers to a member of one class marrying a member of another.
中世纪日本的社会根据其经济功能分为不同阶级。最上层的是侍或武士（根据领主和附庸之间的封建关系，它有自己的内部区别），拥有土地的贵族、祭司、地主和农民（他们向地主或国家缴纳土地税），工匠和商人。有趣的是，在中世纪日本，商人的社会地位低于农民。此外，还有一些被社会所排斥者，包括从事“不良”职业的人，如屠夫和制革工、演员、殡仪员和罪犯。阶级之间会产生一些流动，如农民成为战士，特别是在那个频繁发生内战的时代，但也存在法律障碍，阻止某个阶级的成员与另一个阶级的成员结婚。
Although women were not given the advantages awarded to men, their status and rights changed through the medieval period and often depended on both the status of their husbands and the region in which they lived. Rights related to inheritance, property ownership, divorce, and freedom of movement all fluctuated over time and place. A common strategy of families everywhere and of all classes was to use daughters as a tool to marry into a higher-status family and so improve the position of her own relations. Another strategy was for powerful samurai to use their daughters as a means to solidify alliances with rival warlords by arranging marriages of convenience for them.
尽管女性不享有与男子相同的优势，但她们的地位与权利在中世纪时期不断演变，并且往往取决于她们丈夫的地位以及所居住的地区。与继承、世袭财产、离婚和迁徙自由有关的权利都随着空间和时间的变化而波动。各地、各阶层共同的家庭策略就是利用女儿嫁入地位较高的家庭，以提高自己的关系地位。另一种策略是，强大的武士利用他们的女儿，通过为她们安排权宜婚姻来巩固与敌对军阀的联盟。
婚姻方面
Marriage was a more formal affair amongst the upper classes, while in rural communities things were more relaxed, even pre-marital sex was permitted thanks to the established tradition of yohai or 'night visit' between lovers. In ancient Japan, a married man often went to live in the family home of his wife, but in the medieval period, this was reversed. In the case of the wives of samurai, they were expected to defend the home in their husband's absence on campaign, and they were given the gift of a knife at their wedding as a symbol of this duty. Many such women did learn martial skills.
在上层阶级中，婚姻是一件比较正式的事情，而在农村社区，情况则相对宽松，由于恋人之间既定的“夜访”（yohai）传统，甚至允许婚前性行为。在古代日本（镰仓时代之前），已婚男子经常去妻子的家中居住，但在中世纪时期，这种情况被颠覆。就武士的妻子而言，她们被期望在丈夫不在时保卫家园，她们在婚礼上会收到一把刀作为礼物，作为这一职责的象征。这些妇女中有许多人学习了武术。
Divorce was always in favour of the male who could decide to terminate his marriage simply by writing a letter to his wife. If the couple remained on amicable terms, then a mutual settlement could be made, but the male ultimately had the power to decide such matters. If there were evidence of adultery, then the wife could even be executed. As a wife had no recourse to any legal protection, the only option for many women to escape adulterous or violent husbands was to join a convent.
离婚总是有利于那些只需给妻子写一封信就可以决定结束婚姻的男人。如果夫妻双方仍然保持友好关系，那么可以相互妥协，但男性最终有权决定此类事项。如果有通奸的证据，那么妻子甚至可以被处决。由于妻子无法获得任何法律保护，许多妇女为逃避通奸或暴力的丈夫，唯一的选择就是加入尼姑庵。
家庭方面
The essential family unit in Japan was the ie (house) which included parents and their children, grandparents, other blood relations, and the household servants and their children. Eldest sons usually inherited the property of the ie, but the absence of male offspring could entail bringing in an outsider to act as head of the family (koshu) - male children were often adopted for this very purpose - although a female member might also take on the role, too. The wife of the koshu was the senior female in the family and was responsible for managing the household duties. The good of the ie was meant to take precedence over any individual's and the three principles to be followed by all were: obligation, obedience, and loyalty. For this reason, all the property within a family was regarded not as belonging to any individual but to the ie as a whole. Filial duty (oya koko) to one's parents and grandparents was especially cultivated as a positive sentiment.
日本的基本家庭单位是ie（家庭），包括父母及其子女、祖父母、其他血缘关系、家仆及其子女（ie的物理定义包括一个庄园，其中包括房屋、稻田和菜园，以及当地墓地的独立部分）。长子通常继承家产，但如果没有男性后代，就需要找一个外人来担任一家之主（Koshu）——男孩往往就是为此而被收养的，尽管女性成员也可能承担这一角色。家主的妻子是家里最重要的女人，负责打理家务。家庭的利益要高于任何个人的利益，所有人要遵循的三个原则是：义务、服从和忠诚。出于这个原因，家庭中的所有财产不被视为属于任何个人，而是属于整个家庭。对父母和祖父母的孝道责任（oya koko）尤其被作为一种积极的情感来培养。
教育方面
The children of farmers and artisans were taught by their fathers and mothers the practical skills they had acquired through a lifetime of work. Regarding more formal education, this had previously been the exclusive privilege of aristocratic families or those who joined Buddhist monasteries, but in the medieval period, the rising samurai class began to educate their children, too, largely at the schools offered by Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, the number of people who were literate, even in the upper classes, was only a tiny proportion of the population as a whole, and monks were much called on to assist with paperwork in the secular world.
农民和工匠的孩子从他们父母那里学习其在工作生活中获得的实用技能。关于更正式的教育，以前是贵族家庭或加入佛教寺院的人专有的特权，但在中世纪时期，崛起的武士阶层也开始给他们的孩子安排教育，主要是在佛教寺庙成立的学校。然而，识字的人数，即使在上层阶级，也只占总人口的极小部分，世俗界对僧人处理文书的需求量很大。
When they did learn, children in the early medieval period did so from private tutors or the classes arranged by temples, but there was at least one famous school in the modern sense, the Ashikaga School, founded by the samurai Uesugi Norizane in 1439 CE and boasting 3000 students by the mid-16th century CE. Here, boys learnt the two subjects close to every warrior's heart: military strategy and Confucian philosophy. Many prosperous samurai also established libraries of classic Chinese and Japanese literature, which were made accessible to priests and scholars, and these often became noted centres of learning in the Edo period (1603-1868 CE). One famous example was the Kanazawa Library, established by Hojo Sanetoki in 1275 CE. Another source of education was the schools established by Christian missionaries from the 16th century CE.
中世纪日本早期的孩子们接受教育时，是在私人教师的指导下或在寺庙的班级里接受教育，有一所现代意义上的著名学校，即足利学校，由武士上杉宪实于公元1439年创立，到公元16世纪中期拥有3000名学生。在这里，孩子们会学习每个战士都关心的两个科目：军事战略和儒家哲学。许多富裕的武士还建立了中国和日本古典文学的文库，供祭司和学者使用，这些文库在江户时代（公元1603-1868年）往往成为著名的学习中心。著名的例子是金泽文库，由北条实时于公元1275年建立。16世纪以来基督教传教士建立的学校提供了另一种受教育渠道。
贸易方面
Markets developed in Japan from the 14th century CE so that most towns had a weekly or thrice-monthly one when merchants travelled around their particular regions and farmers sold their surplus goods. Foodstuffs were more available than ever before, increasing thanks to developments in agricultural techniques and tools. Goods were bartered for other goods, and coins were being used more and more (although they were actually imported from China). Markets were also promoted by local authorities who saw their value as a tax revenue source by standardising currencies, weights, and measures. Non-food items available at local markets included pottery, tools, cooking utensils, and household furniture. Markets at the capital and other larger cities might have more exotic goods on sale, such as Ming porcelain, Chinese silk, Korean cotton and ginseng, spices from Thailand and Indonesia, or Japanese-made jewellery and weapons.
日本从14世纪就开始发展市场，大多数城镇每周都会有一次或每月至少三次的集市，商人在各地区进行交易，农民则出售剩余产品。由于农业技术和工具的发展，食物的供应量比以前更多。尽管货币的使用越来越多（它们实际上是从中国进口的），但商品通常用来交换其他商品。地方当局也通过标准化货币、重量和计量将其视为税收来源，从而鼓舞了市场。当地市场上出售的非食物物品包括陶器、工具、厨房用具和家用家具。首都和其他较大城市的市场可能会有更多的异国商品出售，如明代瓷器、中国丝绸、朝鲜（李氏朝鲜，1392年—1897年）棉花和人参、泰国和印度尼西亚的香料，或珠宝与本地制造的武器。
膳食方面
In the medieval period, most upper-class Japanese and monks would have eaten two meals a day - one around noon and another in the early evening. Lower classes might have eaten four meals a day. Men generally ate separately from women, and there were certain rules of etiquette such as a wife should serve a husband and the eldest daughter-in-law should serve the female head of the household. Food was served on a tray placed in front of the diner who was seated on the floor. The food was then eaten with chopsticks made of lacquered wood, precious metal or ivory.
中世纪时期，大多数日本上层阶级人士和僧侣每天吃两顿饭，一顿在中午，另一顿在傍晚。下层阶级可能一天吃四顿饭。男人一般与女人分开吃饭，而且有一些礼仪规则，如妻子应该服侍丈夫，大儿媳服侍女主人等。食物会被放在一个托盘上，端到坐在地板上用餐者的面前。就餐者会用漆木、贵金属或象牙制成的筷子吃饭。
The influence of Buddhism on the aristocracy was strong and meant that meat was (at least publicly) frowned upon by many. The samurai and lower classes had no such qualms and consumed meat whenever they could afford to. The staple foods for everyone were rice (and lots of it - three portions per person per meal was not uncommon), vegetables, seaweed, seafood, and fruit. Soya bean sauce and paste were popular to give extra taste, as were wasabi (a type of horseradish), sansho (ground seedpods of the prickly ash tree), and ginger. Green tea was drunk, usually served after the food, but this was brewed from rough leaves and so different from the fine powder used in the Japanese Tea Ceremony. Sake or rice wine was drunk by everyone but was reserved for special occasions in the medieval period.
佛教对贵族的影响很大，这意味着许多人（至少在公开场合）都不赞成吃肉。武士和下层阶级则没有这种顾虑，只要他们有能力，都会吃肉。每个人的主食是米饭（而且是大量的米饭，每人每餐三份并不罕见）、蔬菜、海藻、海鲜和水果。酱油和味增很受欢迎，可以丰富味觉，还有山葵（一种辣根）、山椒（花椒树的豆荚）和生姜。人们喜饮绿茶，通常在饭后饮用，但它是用粗糙的叶子冲泡的，因此与日本茶道中使用的细茶粉不同。清酒或米酒人人都喝，但在中世纪，只有在特殊场合才饮用。
服饰方面
Upper-class women wore perhaps the most famous wardrobe item from Japanese culture, the kimono. Meaning literally 'thing to wear', the kimono is a woven silk robe tied at the waist by a broad band or obi. Other clothes for both men and women of means tended to be silk, long and loose-fitting, and both sexes might wear baggy trousers, and women skirt-trousers, too. Women might wear a long robe with a train, the uchiki, while men wore short jackets called haori or the long jacket (uchikake or kaidori) fashionable from the Muromachi period (1333-1573 CE). From the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568/73-1600 CE), men, especially samurai, often wore a matching sleeveless robe and trousers outfit called the kamishomo. Finer clothes were often beautifully embroidered with designs of plants, flowers, birds, and landscapes, which would become even more elaborate in the Edo period.
上流社会的女性穿着的也许是日本文化中最著名的服饰——和服。和服的字面意思是“着物”，是一种用宽带或腰带系在腰间的编织丝绸长袍。有经济能力的男女服装一般都是丝质的，长而宽松，男女都可以穿宽裤，女性甚至可以穿裙子。女性可以穿着带拖裾的长裙，即“Uchiki”，而男性则穿着称为“haori”的羽织或从室町时代（公元1333-1573年）开始流行的长外套（注意！文中“Uchikake”指的是日本女性穿着的一种和服，本来是春、秋、冬的和服，但在婚礼租赁服装中，很少会看到用纱制成的夏季打掛；它也被称为“kaidori”。在红灯区，它有时也被称为“kake”或“shikake”。有些新娘可能会在婚礼上佩戴打掛（Uchikake）。打掛（Uchikake）比里面穿的和服长一个尺码，下摆有一个被称为“fuki”的厚重部分，里面填充了大量棉絮，详情参考：https://www.japanesewiki.com/culture/Uchikake.html）。从安土桃山时期（1568/73-1600年）开始，男子，特别是武士，经常穿着配套的无袖长袍和裤子，称为“裃”(Kamishimo)。华丽的衣服上通常绣有精美的植物、花卉、鸟类和风景图案，到了江户时代，这些图案变得更加精致。
Lower classes typically wore similar clothes but of more sober colouring and made of woven flax or hemp and, if working in the fields in summer, both men and women often only wore a loincloth-type garment and nothing else. From the late 14th century CE cotton clothing became much more common for all classes. The preferred footwear for everyone was sandals (zori), made from either wood, rope, or leather. Country folk might wear straw boots (zunbe) in colder weather. The most common headgear was the kasa, a straw hat which took many forms, some of which indicated the wearer's social status.
下层阶级通常穿着类似的衣服，但颜色较之更为朴素，这些衣物由亚麻或大麻编织而成，如果夏天在田间劳作，男人和女人往往只穿缠腰布式的衣服，其他什么都不穿。从 14 世纪末开始，棉质服装在各个阶层都变得更加普遍。每个人最喜欢的鞋子是凉鞋（zori），由木头、绳索或皮革制成。寒冷的天气里，乡下人会穿稻草鞋（zunbe）。最常见的头饰是笠（kasa），一种草帽，有多种形式，有一些形式的笠会表明佩戴者的社会地位。
A popular accessory for men and women was a hand fan (uchiwa) and specifically the folding fan (ogi) which became a status symbol. Women might wear an ornate comb or pin in their hair made from bamboo, wood, ivory or tortoiseshell and perhaps decorated with a few embellishments in gold or pearl. A pale complexion was admired on both men and women and so white powder (oshiroi) was worn. Fashionable women wore a red dot on their lower lip made using a flower-based paste or a red lipstick (beni). Women also shaved and redrew their eyebrows. Women and samurai were inclined to blacken their teeth in the medieval period in the process known as ohaguro. Although tattoos became fashionable in the 18th century CE, in medieval times they were used as a form of punishment for criminals - the actual crime being written on the face and arms for all to see.
手扇（uchiwa）是一种深受男性和女性欢迎的配饰，尤其是折扇（ogi），它成为了一种身份象征。女性可能会在头发上佩戴一把由竹子、木头、象牙或玳瑁甲制成的华丽的梳子或钗，也许还装饰着一些金饰或珍珠饰物。男人和女人都喜欢苍白的肤色，因此会往脸上涂白色粉末（oshiroi）。时髦的女性会在下唇上点缀一个红点，这个红点是用以花为基础的浆糊或红色唇膏（beni）制成的。女性有时还会剃光眉毛，重新画眉。在中世纪时期，妇女和武士倾向于在牙齿上涂黑，这个过程被称为“ohaguro”。虽然纹身在公元18世纪开始流行，但在中世纪，纹身被用作对罪犯的一种惩罚形式，实际罪行被刻在脸上和胳膊上，让所有人看到。
娱乐方面
Medieval entertainments included sumo wrestling bouts, held at Shinto shrines before it gained a wider appeal in its own venues from the Edo period. Falconry, fishing, cock-fighting, a type of football game (kemari) where players had to keep the ball in the air as it went around a circle playing area, handball (temari), badminton (hanetsuki) which used wooden paddles, and martial arts (especially those involving horse riding, fencing, and archery) were popular pastimes. Indoor games included the two most popular board games: go and shogi. The game of go involves two players aiming to move white or black stones across a grid board in order to control territory while shogi is a form of chess. Cards were also played, although they were quite different to those in the west, with two popular sets having poems on them (karuta) or flowers and animals (hanafuda). Gambling was frequently associated with card-playing. From the 14th century CE, Noh theatre was another popular form of entertainment where masked actors performed in stylised movements set to music, telling the stories of celebrated gods, heroes, and heroines. Children played with the traditional toys popular elsewhere such as spinning tops, dolls, and kites.
中世纪的娱乐活动包括相扑，相扑在神社举行，从江户时代开始在自己的表演场所流行起来。猎鹰、捕鱼、斗鸡、蹴鞠（kemari），手球（temari，玩家必须让球在空中绕行一圈）、使用木板的羽根突 (Hanetsuki)和武术（尤其是涉及骑马、击剑和射箭的武术）是流行的消遣活动。室内游戏包括两种最流行的棋盘游戏：围棋和将棋。围棋游戏由两个人玩，涉及在网格棋盘上移动白棋或黑棋以控制领土，而将棋是国际象棋的一种形式。人们也玩纸牌，尽管它们与西方的纸牌有很大的不同，有两套流行的纸牌：上面有诗（歌留多，Karuta）或花与动物（花札，hanafuda）。赌博经常与玩牌有关。从公元14世纪开始，能剧是另一种流行的娱乐形式，戴着面具的演员在音乐的伴奏下，以风格化的动作表演，讲述著名的神、英雄或女英雄的故事。孩子们玩着流通各地的传统玩具，如陀螺、玩偶和风筝。
旅行方面
Travel was restricted in the medieval period because of Japan's mountainous terrain and the lack of a well-kept road network. One group that did move around was pilgrims, although these were limited to those with either the means to pay for expensive travel arrangements or the time to do so. There were specific pilgrimage routes such as the 88-temple tour established by the monk Kukai (774-835 CE) and the 33-temple tour which worshippers of the Bodhisattva Kannon were encouraged to endure. Up to the Edo period, getting around was mostly done on foot, with goods carried by teams of horses or oxen pulling carts, while faster horses were ridden by messengers. Waterways were an important means to transport both people and goods, especially timber, cotton cloth, rice, and fish. The wealthy were carried about on a palanquin (kago) - a bamboo or wooden chair between long poles for the two carriers, one at either end. For the more adventurous there was maritime trade with both China and Korea, and monks, especially, travelled back and forth to study and bring ideas back to their monasteries. Both land and sea travel remained dangerous in medieval Japan, the former thanks to bandits and the latter due to the wako pirates that plagued the high seas.
由于山区地形和缺乏维护良好的道路网络，日本中世纪时期的旅行会受到不小的限制。有一个群体确实在四处活动，尽管他们仅限于那些有能力支付昂贵的旅行安排或有时间这样做的人。有特定的朝圣路线，如由空海和尚（公元774-835年）提出的八十八寺巡回路线和鼓励观世音菩萨崇拜者完成的三十三寺巡回路线。直到江户时代，人们的出行主要靠步行，货物由马队或牛拉车运送，而信使则骑着更快的马。水路是运输人员和货物的重要手段，特别是木材、棉布、大米和渔获。富人乘坐轿子（kago），这是一种竹椅或木椅，长杆之间有两个轿夫，两端各一个。对于更有冒险精神的人来说，他们会与中国和朝鲜进行海上贸易，特别是僧侣，来回旅行学习，并把思想带回他们的寺院。在中世纪的日本，陆路或海路旅行都很危险，前者是因为强盗，后者则是由于困扰公海的倭寇 (Wokou)。
死亡与葬礼
Just as Japanese people today enjoy one of the longest life expectancy rates in the world, so, too in the medieval period the Japanese were ahead of almost everyone else. The average life expectancy was around 50 years of age (in the best locations and periods) compared to a high of 40 in Western Europe, for example. There remained challenges to overcome or avoid such as famine, vitamin deficiency from a rice-heavy diet, diseases such as smallpox and leprosy, illness caused by parasites which thrived in conditions where waste disposal was poor, and the risk of death or injury from wars. In the medieval period, the most common treatment of the dead was cremation (kaso).
正如今天的日本人是世界上预期寿命最长的国家之一一样，在中世纪时期，日本人也几乎领先于其他人。平均预期寿命约为50岁（在最好的地区和时期），而在西欧，平均预期寿命最高为40岁。仍然存在需要克服或避免的挑战，例如饥荒、因富含大米的饮食而导致的维生素匮乏、天花和麻风病等疾病、在废物处理不善的条件下繁殖的寄生虫引起的疾病，以及战争带来的疾病或死亡风险。这一时期的日本，对死者最常见的处理方式是火葬（kaso）。
When a person died, most Japanese thought that the spirit of the deceased then went to the 'Land of Darkness' or shigo no sekai. The spirts then might occasionally revisit the world of the living. Those who followed Buddhism believed that people either went to a form of hell or were reincarnated or went to the Buddhist paradise, the Pure Land. Ancestors were not forgotten and were honoured each year in the Obon festival held in July/August when it was thought they returned to their families for a three-day visit.
当一个人死后，大多数日本人认为死者的灵魂会去“黑暗之地”（shigo no sekai）。然而，灵魂偶尔会回到生者的世界。那些信奉佛教的人认为，人要么下地狱、转世，要么去极乐净土。每年七月、八月举行的盂兰盆节期间，人们会祭祖。当时的人们认为祖先会回到家人身边，进行为期三天的探望。
参考书目：
Beasley, W.G. The Japanese Experience. University of California Press, 2000.
Deal, W.E. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press, 2007.
Ebrey, P.B. Pre-Modern East Asia. Cengage Learning, 2013.
Henshall, K. Historical Dictionary of Japan to 1945. Scarecrow Press, 2013.
Huffman, J.L. Japan in World History. Oxford University Press, 2010.
Mason, R.H.P. A History of Japan. Tuttle Publishing, 1997.
Yamamura, K. (ed). The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press, 2001.
原文作者：Mark Cartwright
驻意大利的历史作家。他的主要兴趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神话和发现所有文明的共同思想。他拥有政治哲学硕士学位，是《世界历史百科全书》的出版总监。
原文网址： https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/es/2-1424/vida-cotidiana-en-el-japon-medieval/
