中世纪世界生活手册（四）
教廷角色的变化
君士坦丁将君士坦丁堡设为新首都，并在四世纪皈依了基督教，同时将罗马帝国分为西半部和东半部，这为后来拜占庭教会和罗马教会的最终分离奠定基础。自罗马帝国后期的四帝共治以来，东方帝国对西方帝国就拥有许多优势。东部的边境更容易防守，它的城市更大，人口更多，城市文化更古老、更安全，经济更稳固和繁荣。这些因素不仅确保了在西半部落入野蛮人之手时东方帝国的延续性，也解释了东方帝王在教会中掌握的实际权力的连续性。对于君士坦丁和他的继任者来说，教会相当于一个“国家的部门”。君士坦丁召集的第一次尼西亚会议开创了东方皇帝干预神学辩论并对教会教义进行立法的先例。
When the emperor Constantine converted to Christianity in the fourth century and created his new capital at Constantinople, the political separation that divided the western and eastern halves of the Roman Empire would lay the ground for the eventual separation of what would become the Byzantine Church and the Roman Church. Since the period of the late Roman tetrachy, the Eastern Empire held many advantages over the West. The eastern frontier was easier to defend, its cities larger and far more populous, its urban culture older and more secure, and its economy more solid and prosperous. These factors not only ensured the continuity of the Eastern Empire when the western half fell to the barbarians. They also explain the continuity in the real power that the Eastern emperors wielded in the church. For Constantine and his successors, the church was comparable to a “department of state” (Kagan et al., 142). Constantine’s convocation of the First Council of Nicaea established the precedent by which Eastern emperors intervened in theological debates and legislated church doctrine.
相比之下，西方皇帝权力的下降导致了罗马主教在结构上独立于帝国权力。为了对抗君士坦丁堡教会的影响力及其对罗马教廷的平等要求，罗马主教开始正式宣称他们对东方教长的首要地位。为争夺首要地位而进行的政治角逐，加上其他教义、礼仪和语言上的分歧，最终导致了1054年拜占庭教会和天主教教会之间的大分裂。
By contrast, the decline in the power of the Western emperors resulted in the structural independence of the bishops of Rome from imperial power. To counter the weight of the church at Constantinople and its claims of parity with the See of Rome, the bishops of Rome began formally to assert their primacy over the Eastern patriarchs. The political jockeying for primacy, together with other doctrinal, liturgical, and linguistic differences, would culminate in the Great Schism between the Byzantine and the Catholic Churches in 1054.
教皇的王国之钥
正如《新约》中所证实的那样，罗马教会只是在整个地中海和小亚细亚地区建立的众多教会中的一个。使徒彼得领导罗马教会并在那里殉教的事实，赋予了这个教会以其他教会所承认的神话般的魅力，毕竟，福音书清楚地证明了基督本人赋予彼得的权威。在《马太福音》的一个关键段落中，基督给了彼得天国的钥匙，有权控制谁能或谁不能进入天堂的救赎之门。“我要告诉你，你是彼得，我要把我的教会建立在这磐石上[彼得的意思是“磐石”]，地狱的门也不能胜过它。我要把天国的钥匙交给你，你在地上所捆绑的，在天上也要捆绑”（太16：18-19）。因此，罗马的主教们可以合法地声称自己是圣彼得的继承人。然而，从这一点来看，并不意味着罗马教会应该拥有高于其他教会的地位。但这正是罗马的主教们在第四世纪末开始宣称的观点。大约在这个时候，罗马的主教们，也被称为圣彼得的代理人，也开始自称“教皇”（papa），以进一步区别于东方的牧首。
As the New Testament confirms, the Church of Rome was but one of the multiple churches that had been established throughout the Mediterranean and Asia Minor. The fact that the apostle Peter had led the Church of Rome and been martyred there endowed this church with a mythic cachet that the other churches acknowledged. After all, the Gospels clearly attested to the authority that Christ himself conferred upon Peter. In a critical passage from the gospel of Matthew, Christ gave Peter the keys to the kingdom of heaven, the right to control who could or who could not enter through the heavenly portals to salvation: “And I say to you that you are Peter, and upon this rock [Peter means “rock”] I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven” (Mt. 16:18–19). The bishops of Rome could thus legitimately claim to be the successors of Saint Peter. Yet from this it does not necessarily follow that the Roman Church should have primacy over the other churches. This, however, is what the bishops of Rome began to claim toward the end of the fourth century. Around this time the bishops of Rome, also known by the title of the Vicar of Saint Peter, also began to call themselves “pope” (papa) in order to distinguish themselves further from the Eastern patriarchs.
381年，皇帝狄奥多西一世召集了第一次君士坦丁堡会议，以完善和重申《尼西亚信条》作为教会的官方教义，反对竞争性的非三位一体教派。会议的第三条教规引起了争议，它宣布由于君士坦丁堡是新罗马，君士坦丁堡的主教应该在罗马的主教之后受到尊敬。这种争议在于改变了古代教会所遵循的顺序，即认为亚历山大和安提阿教会的地位仅次于罗马教会。因此，罗马主教达玛稣一世（366-384）拒绝接受这条教规的有效性，理由是罗马教廷作为圣彼得的继承人，拥有独特的使徒优先权。这种情况在451年迦克墩公会议（加采东大公会议或卡尔西顿会议）期间达到了顶峰，该会议给予罗马和君士坦丁堡“平等的特权”（isa presbeia），后者作为“新罗马”的身份。召开会议时的罗马主教是利奥一世（440-461），他是打击异端的不懈努力者，也是彼得至上主义的倡导者。
In 381 Emperor Theodosius I convoked the First Council of Constantinople to refine and reaffirm the Nicene Creed as official church doctrine against competing non-Trinitarian sects. The third of the council’s canons aroused controversy by declaring that as Constantinople was the New Rome, the bishop of Constantinople should be honored after the bishop of Rome. The controversy lay in the alteration in the order followed in the ancient church, which held that the Churches of Alexandria and Antioch were next in rank to the Church of Rome. Accordingly, the bishop of Rome, Damasus I (366–384), refused to accept the validity of this canon on the basis that the See of Rome had a unique apostolic primacy based on its singular claim as the heir of Saint Peter. The situation came to a head in 451 during the Council of Chalcedon, which granted “equal privileges” (isa presbeia) to Rome and Constantinople, the latter in its capacity as the “New Rome.” The bishop of Rome at the time of the council was Leo I the Great (440–461), a tireless worker in the efforts to combat heterodoxy and promoter of the doctrine of Petrine supremacy.
迦克墩公会议后，利奥向西罗马皇帝瓦伦丁尼安三世（瓦伦提尼安三世，425-455）上诉，要求颁布一项日期为445年的帝国法令，承认罗马主教基于圣彼得的功绩而享有的首要地位。由此产生的彼得至上学说承认其他教会对其管辖范围的权威，但断言只有罗马统治整个教会，只有教皇的法令才具有教义上的权威。作为其至高无上地位的进一步标志，利奥采用了pontifex maximus的称号，其字面意思是“最高的桥梁制造者”，但通常被翻译为 “最高教皇”。因此，利奥一世被教会认为是第一位真正的普世教皇。
After the Council of Chalcedon Leo appealed to the Western Roman emperor Valentinian III (r. 425–455) for an imperial decree, dated 445, which recognized the primacy of the bishop of Rome based on the merits of Saint Peter. The resultant doctrine of Petrine supremacy acknowledged the authority of the other churches over their own jurisdictions but asserted that only Rome ruled over the entire church and that only the pope’s edicts would have doctrinal authority. As a further sign of his supreme status, Leo adopted the title pontifex maximus, the literal meaning of which is “supreme bridge maker” but is usually translated as “Supreme Pontiff.” As such, Leo I is regarded by the church as the first truly universal pope.
教皇哲拉旭一世（格拉修斯一世，492-496）宣称的教皇至高无上的地位取代了他的前任，他采取了非同寻常的步骤，将传统的“圣彼得的代理人”称号改为“耶稣基督的代理人”，以示其普遍权威。从历史的角度来看，哲拉旭的书信中有一段关键的文字，题为Duo sunt（“两个是”），它确立了“两个权力”的原则，第一个是教皇的神圣权力（autoritas sacrata pontificum），第二个是世俗的皇家权力（regalis potestas）。不用说，哲拉旭认为教皇的权力比王权更重要，这意味着世俗君主的合法性来自教会。
The claims of papal supremacy of Pope Gelasius I (492–496) superseded those of his predecessor when he took the extraordinary step of changing the traditional title “Vicar of Saint Peter” to “Vicar of Jesus Christ” to signal his universal authority. Even more extraordinary from the historical point of view was a key passage in Gelasius’s epistle entitled Duo sunt (“Two are”), which established the principle of “two powers,” the first the holy authority of bishops (autoritas sacrata pontificum) and the second the secular royal power (regalis potestas). Needless to say, Gelasius deemed papal authority to be weightier than royal power, meaning that secular monarchs derived their legitimacy from the church.
教皇制与帝国制：遗产继承权的争论
在11世纪格里高利改革（额我略改革）之前，牧师可以结婚并公开与妻妾生活。在10世纪，贵族和贵族妇女任命教皇。丰满的意大利贵族妇女玛罗兹亚（约937年）显然控制了三位教皇。作为教皇色尔爵三世（904-911年）的情妇，当他们的儿子被任命为教皇若望十一世（931-935年）时，她成了另一位母亲。然后玛罗兹亚把他关进监狱，把教皇的宝座交给她另一个儿子。
Before the 11th century Gregorian Reform priests could marry and live openly with concubines. In the 10th century noblemen and noblewomen appointed popes. The voluptuous Italian noblewoman Marozia (d. c. 937) apparently controlled three popes. As the mistress to Pope Sergius III (904–911), she became mother to another when their son was invested as Pope John XI (r. 931–935). Then she had him imprisoned to release the papal throne to her other son, by another father.
教廷竟然成为一个反复无常、野心勃勃的女人的政治野心的棋子，这表明教会的实际权力与《君士坦丁捐赠书》所拥护的崇高地位相比，已经衰落到何种程度。《君士坦丁捐赠书》是一份伪造的帝国诏书，可能是在斯德望二世（752-757）担任教皇期间写的，目的是为了维护教皇的权威，反对拜占庭帝国和法兰克王国的统治。该诏书宣布，罗马皇帝君士坦丁授予教皇西尔维斯特一世（314-335）和罗马的历任主教对罗马、意大利和整个西罗马帝国的临时权力，而他将保留对东罗马帝国的管理权。然而，在加洛林王朝时期，出现了教会事实上从属于世俗权力的情况。加洛林王朝的人越来越多地依靠教会人员来为政府配备人员，从而产生了一种通常被称为“教会封建化”的情况。有土地的贵族建立了教堂、修道院和修女院，他们让自己选择的亲戚和朋友作为工作人员，并将其作为自己的私人可继承财产来维护。教会被迫屈从于这种封建地位，因为它需要保护，以抵御伯爵和其他为争夺加洛林帝国的利益而使用暴力的对立派系。但这种依赖性侵蚀了教会的道德与灵性。越来越多不合适的贵族平民担任了主教职务，这些世俗的主教无视禁止教士结婚的规定，公然娶妻或纳妾以保证其财产的继承权。
That the papacy should become a mere pawn in the political ambitions of a capricious and ambitious woman shows just how far the church’s real power had declined from the lofty position espoused by the Donation of Constantine. The Donation of Constantine was a forged Imperial edict, possibly written during the papacy of Stephen II (752–757) in an attempt to assert papal authority over and against the Byzantine Empire and the Frankish kingdoms. The edict proclaimed that the Roman emperor Constantine had granted Pope Sylvester I (314–335) and the successive bishops of Rome temporal power over Rome, Italy, and the entire Western Roman Empire, while he was to retain governance of the Eastern Roman Empire. However, during the Carolingian period the de facto subordination of the church to the secular powers emerged. The Carolingians relied more and more upon ecclesiastical personnel to staff the government, giving rise to a situation often called the “feudalization of the church.” Landed aristocrats established churches, monasteries, and convents, which they staffed with relatives and friends of their choice and maintained as their own private inheritable property. The church was forced to submit to this feudal status because it needed protection against the quarreling factions of counts and others who employed violence in their quest for a piece of the Carolingian empire. But this dependency eroded the morality and spirituality of the church. More and more unsuitable aristocratic laypersons assumed bishoprics, and these worldly bishops ignored the rules against clerical marriage and took wives or concubines to guarantee the inheritance of their properties.
继承了这种局面的神圣罗马帝国皇帝则不愿意放弃他通过任命修道院院长、主教和教皇而对教会行使的权力。神圣罗马帝国在经济上得益于从净化仪式、出售教会职务中获得的丰厚收入，并通过确保任命忠于皇帝的教会人员而在政治上获益。这种情况对雄心勃勃的神职人员、主教和僧侣来说也完全不令人讨厌，他们的文化水平和优越的教育使他们成为世俗政府的重要雇员。正如皇帝有权任命教皇和神职人员一样，他们也可以废黜他们，1046年，亨利三世（R. 1039-56）进行干预，结束了格里高利六世（额我略六世，1045-46）和即将成为教皇的西尔维斯特三世（1045）之间对教皇职位的争夺，皇帝把他们都免职。
For his part the Holy Roman Emperor, who inherited this situation, was not willing to renounce the power that he exercised over the church through the appointment of abbots, bishops, and popes. The Holy Roman Empire profited economically from the lucrative income gained from the practice of simony, the sale of church offices, and benefited politically by ensuring the appointment of ecclesiastical personnel loyal to the emperor. Nor was this situation at all disagreeable to ambitious clergy, bishops, and monks, whose literacy and superior education made them valuable employees in secular governments. And just as the emperors had the power to invest popes and clergy, they could also depose them, as occurred in 1046 when Henry III (r. 1039–56) intervened to put an end to rivalry over the papal office between Gregory VI (1045–46) and the wouldbe pope Silvester III (1045) by having them both removed.
教会中并非所有人都对这种情况感到高兴。一位名叫希尔德布兰德的克吕尼修士曾是格里高利六世的忠实支持者，并跟随他流亡到了德国。希尔德布兰德后来被选为教皇格里高利七世（1073-85年），他是一位虔诚、有力、有纪律、有道德的教会人士，致力于将克吕尼改革运动推广到整个教会：对教会进行彻底的道德改革，恢复其对世俗权力的独立性。一个世纪前，在虔诚的勃艮第贵族亚奎丹公爵（935-963）的推动下，克吕尼运动开始了，他在克吕尼建立了一座只对教皇负责的修道院。克吕尼安全地横跨阿尔卑斯山，远离了意大利当地腐败的教友和教会统治者的阴谋。在克吕尼第一任院长奥多（942年去世）的领导下，修士们恢复了圣本笃规则的严格纪律，包括斋戒、祈祷和体力劳动。
Not everyone in the church was pleased about this situation. A Cluniac monk named Hildebrand had been a loyal supporter of Gregory VI and had followed him into exile to Germany. Hildebrand, who would later be elected Pope Gregory VII (r. 1073–85), was a pious, powerful, disciplined, and moral ecclesiast committed to extending to the whole church the aims of the Cluny Reform movement: a thorough moral reform of the church and the restoration of its independence from the secular powers. The Cluniac movement had begun a century earlier under the impetus of a pious Burgundian noble, Duke William of Aquitaine (935–963), who established a monastery at Cluny that was answerable only to the pope. Cluny was located safely across the Alps and far away from the machinations of corrupt local Italian lay and ecclesiastical rulers. Under the leadership of Odo, the first abbot of Cluny (d. 942), the monks revived the strict discipline of the rule of Saint Benedict, consisting of fasting, prayer, and manual labor.
作为教皇的忠实臣民，克吕尼的修士们能够将他们的改革扩展到教会的其他部门。格里高利七世在1075年当选教皇后不久，就带头进行了被称为“格里高利改革”的全球性教会改革。在道德改革领域，是格里高利采取了切实的措施，规定了教士的独身主义，并惩罚或解除了所有犯有通奸罪的教士的职务。格里高利改革最重要的政治后果是 “一个羊群，一个牧羊人，一个独立的教会”原则的推广。教会回想起佩特林至高无上的理论和《君士坦丁捐赠书》，认为教皇不仅必须是整个基督教世界的最高权威，而且罗马的主教必须独立于所有世俗权力。在实践中，这意味着只有教皇必须有权控制教会的人事、财产和权利，任何世俗统治者都不应该在任命教会职位方面发挥任何作用。
As loyal subjects to the pope, the Cluniac monks were able to extend their reforms to the rest of the church. Shortly after being elected pope in 1075, Gregory VII spearheaded the global church reform known as the Gregorian Reform. In the sphere of moral reforms, it was Gregory who took tangible steps to impose clerical celibacy and to punish or remove from office all ecclesiasts guilty of simony. The most important political consequence of the Gregorian Reform was the fomentation of the principle of “one flock, one shepherd, and one independent church.” Harking back to the theory of Petrine supremacy and the Donation of Constantine, the church argued not only that the pope must be the supreme authority over all of Christendom, but also that the bishop of Rome must be independent of all secular powers. In practice, this meant that only the pope must have the power to control the personnel, property, and rights of the church and that no secular ruler should play any role in appointing ecclesiastical offices.
为此，格里高利支持那些反叛神圣罗马帝国皇帝亨利四世的主教和贵族。当亨利在军事斗争中获胜时，格里高利将教皇的逐客令之剑插入，1076年，亨利被迫在沮丧和堕落中屈服于教皇非凡的非官方盟友--卡诺萨的玛蒂尔达伯爵夫人（1115年去世）的权力，她拥有卡诺萨城堡。在她的大门外，神圣罗马帝国皇帝赤脚走在雪地上，谦卑地服从教皇的权威。时至今日，“来到卡诺萨”是对深刻的谦卑的表达。从短期来看，这场胜利是短暂的--亨利把格里高利赶到了国外，并扶植了“反教皇”克莱孟三世（R. 1080-1100）。但从长远来看，帝国的统治被削弱了，教皇至高无上的地位得到了加强。
To this end Gregory supported bishops and nobles who rebelled against the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry IV. When Henry won the military battles, Pope Gregory thrust the papal sword of excommunication, and in 1076 Henry was forced to submit in dejection and degradation to the power of the pope’s extraordinary lay ally, the countess Matilda of Tuscany (d. 1115), who owned the castle of Canossa. Outside her gates the Holy Roman Emperor walked barefoot in the snow in humble submission to the pope’s authority. “Coming to Canossa” to this day is the expression for profound humbling. In the short run this victory would be short lived—Henry drove Gregory into exile and installed the “antipope” Clement III (r. 1080–1100). But in the long run Imperial rule was weakened and papal supremacy reinforced.
教皇加理多二世（1119-24年）和皇帝亨利五世（1111-25年）在1122年达成的协议，即《沃尔姆斯宗教协定》，结束了“授职之争”。该协议是一项妥协协议，允许皇帝在其管辖的领土上“通过长矛”授予主教世俗权力，但保留了教皇“通过戒指和羊角锤”授予他们精神权力的权利。由于同意教友不应干涉教会事务的管理，该协议为教会和国家权力之间的分离原则奠定了基础。
The Investiture Controversy ended with the agreement reached in 1122 between Pope Calixtus II (1119–24) and Emperor Henry V (r. 1111–25) known as the Concordat of Worms. The concordat was a compromise agreement that allowed the emperor to invest bishops with their secular authority “by the lance” in the territories that they governed, but reserved the right to the pope to invest them with spiritual authority “by the ring and the crozier.” In agreeing that laypersons should not interfere in the running of church affairs, the concordat laid the basis of the principle of a separation between the powers of the church and those of the state.
拜占庭与罗马之间的大分裂（1054年）
一个世纪前，即1054年，教皇利奥九世（1049-54年）和君士坦丁堡普世牧首米海尔一世·凯路拉里奥斯（1043-59年）因在普世教会的权威问题上观点不一致而互相驱逐，从而正式宣布了东正教会和拉丁语罗马天主教会之间的“大分裂”。表面原因是诺曼人强迫拜占庭-意大利的希腊人加入罗马教会时，两位牧首之间爆发的争吵。然而，这次分裂是一个漫长的过程，是几个世纪以来不可逾越的文化、教义和政治分歧的高潮。西罗马帝国毁灭后，东西方文化裂痕加速。首先消失的是希腊-罗马的共同语言遗产，到五世纪末，大多数西方神职人员不懂希腊语，到了600年，甚至大多数博学的希腊神学家也不懂拉丁语。查理曼大帝通过加洛林文艺复兴推广了一种独特的拉丁文明，进一步扩大了双方之间的文化差距。而伊斯兰帝国的建立使东西方教会之间的接触变得极为困难。
A century earlier, in 1054, Pope Leo IX (r. 1049–54) and the Greek patriarch Michael Cerularius (r. 1043–59) had excommunicated each other for their unreconcilable views on the issue of authority over the universal church, thereby officially declaring the “Great Schism” between the Orthodox Church and the Latin Roman Catholic Church. The ostensible cause was a quarrel that broke out between the two patriarchs when the Catholic Normans forced the Greeks of Byzantine Italy to adhere to the Roman Church. However, the schism was a long time in coming and the culmination of centuries of insurmountable cultural, doctrinal, and political divergences. The cultural rift was accelerated after the destruction of the Western Roman Empire. The first to disappear was the shared Greco-Roman linguistic heritage: By the late fifth century most Western clerics knew no Greek, and by the year 600 even most erudite Greek theologians knew no Latin. Charlemagne’s promotion of a distinctly Latin civilization via the Carolingian Renaissance further broadened the cultural gap. The establishment of the Islamic empire made contacts between the Eastern and Western Churches extremely difficult.
在政治领域，君士坦丁堡的普世牧首拒绝承认罗马教皇的至高地位，并彻底拒绝教皇对东方牧首的权威要求。教皇拒绝承认元老们对权威的反诉，拒绝希腊教会将君士坦丁堡的元老提升到与罗马主教同等的大公（普世）元老地位，并批评他们转向政教合一，将权力授予一个人作为世俗统治者和精神统治者。对位于战略要地的巴尔干教会的控制权存在争议是另一个因素。罗马教会和拜占庭教会在行使教会权力方面也有不同。在拉丁教会中，教皇将定义教义的最大权利归于自己，并限制世俗权力对教会政策的干预。在希腊教会中，教义来自对圣经权威和大公会议的诉求，而大公会议可以由皇帝召集。对罗马教会来说，更臭名昭著的是圣像破坏之争（约730-787年，814-843年），这是最公然的政教合一案例，因为禁止崇拜和展示圣像的决定是由世俗的拜占庭皇帝伊苏里亚的利奥三世制定的。
In the political arena Greek patriarchs in Constantinople refused to recognize the supremacy of the pope in Rome and utterly rejected papal claims of authority over the Eastern patriarchs. The popes refused to acknowledge the patriarchs’ counterclaims of authority, rejected the Greek Church’s elevation of the patriarch of Constantinople to the status of an ecumenical (universal) patriarch on par with the bishop of Rome, and criticized their veering toward caesaropapism, granting power to one person as earthly ruler and spiritual ruler. The disputed control over the strategically located Balkan Churches was another factor. The Roman and Byzantine Churches also differed in the exercise of ecclesiastical authority. In the Latin Church the pope ascribed to himself the maximal right to define doctrine and circumscribed the interference of the secular powers in church policy. In the Greek Church doctrine was derived from appeals to biblical authority and ecumenical councils, which could be convoked by the emperor. Even more infamous for the Roman Church was the Iconoclast Controversy (c. 730–787, 814–843), the most flagrant case of caesaropapism since the decision to forbid worshiping and displaying icons was instituted by a secular Byzantine emperor, Leo the Isaurian.
拉丁教会和希腊教会之间另一个众所周知的分歧是关于独身的政策。四世纪西班牙的埃尔韦拉公会议在300至303年间如期举行，这是西方教会首次尝试对所有牧师和其他在祭坛上传授圣礼的人员实行独身主义。然而，直到格里高利改革，独身主义才成为罗马教会的官方政策。拜占庭教会从未对其神职人员实行全面的独身主义，而是将其限制在修士、修女和主教身上。此外，已婚的神职人员和俗人都可以离婚。
Another well-known difference between the Latin and Greek Churches is the policy on celibacy. The fourth-century Council of Elvira in Spain, held sometime between 300 and 303, was the first attempt of the Western Church to impose monastic celibacy upon all priests and other personnel who minister the sacraments at the altar. It was not until the Gregorian Reform, however, that clerical celibacy was made the official policy of the Roman Church. The Byzantine Church never imposed global celibacy upon its priesthood, limiting it instead to monks, nuns, and bishops. Moreover, married clergy and the laity were able to divorce.
更为严重的是，天主教会认为希腊人在尼西亚会议上制定并在君士坦丁堡会议上批准的基督教尼西亚三位一体的严格教义公式上摇摆不定。例如，在第七世纪，君士坦丁堡牧首塞尔吉乌斯一世（教宗色尔爵一世，R. 610-638）和拜占庭皇帝希拉克略（R. 610-641）提倡基督论的一元论，认为基督有一个意志但有两个性质，与基督的完全人性和完全神性的正统教义相矛盾。
Even more serious was what the Catholic Church perceived to be Greek floundering on the strict doctrinal formula of Nicene Trinitarian Christianity formulated in the Council of Nicaea and ratified at the Council of Constantinople. For instance, in the seventh century the patriarch Sergius I of Constantinople (r. 610–638) and Emperor Heraclius (r. 610– 641) promoted the Christological doctrine of monothelitism, which held that Christ had one will but two natures, contradicting the orthodox doctrine of Christ’s full humanity and full divinity.
最严重的争论点是关于“孝道条款”的冲突。该条款认为，圣灵“是从父和子那里出来的”。(拉丁文词 filioque 的意思是“并从圣子”)。这个公式与381年修订的《尼西亚信条》不同，后者认为“圣灵从父而来，他与圣父和圣子一起受到崇拜和荣耀”。
The gravest point of contention was the conflict over the “filioque clause.” This clause posits that the Holy Spirit “proceeds from the Father and the Son.” (the Latin word filioque means “and from the Son”). This formula differed from the revised Nicene Creed of 381, which sustained that “the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father. With the Father and the Son He is worshipped and glorified.”
九世纪时，加洛林人试图向教皇施压，要求他们正式采纳“孝道”条款，以支持他们对新复兴的西罗马帝国的要求，但未获成功。此时，教皇相对于西方皇帝的地位很强。11世纪初，权力的平衡被扭转，逐渐有利于神圣罗马帝国的皇帝。1014年，在皇帝亨利二世的坚持下，教皇正式将这句话加入到《尼西亚信条》中，并在弥撒中首次被诵读。主教米海尔一世（Cerularius）认为filioque条款是大分裂的催化剂之一，因为他指责罗马教皇在改变正统教义时超出了他的权力范围。
In the ninth century the Carolingians attempted unsuccessfully to pressure the popes into officially adopting the filioque clause in order to buttress their claims to the newly revived Western Roman Empire. At this time the position of the pope vis-à-vis the Western emperor was strong. In the early 11th century, the balance of power had been reversed in favor of the Holy Roman Emperor. In 1014 at the insistence of Emperor Henry II, the pope officially added the phrase to the Nicene Creed, and it was recited for the first time during Mass. Patriarch Cerularius considered the filioque clause to be one of the catalysts of the Great Schism since he accused the Roman pope of exceeding the limits of his authority in changing orthodox doctrine.
最后但并非最不重要的是，在格里高利改革之后，教皇对神圣罗马帝国皇帝的空前权力进一步引起了拜占庭教会的恐慌。随之而来的对新皈依者的争夺将导致罗斯和巴尔干地区加入东正教会。波兰、波西米亚和匈牙利王国在文化和宗教上皈依拉丁天主教。
Last but not least, the pope’s unprecedented power over the Holy Roman Emperor in the aftermath of the Gregorian Reform was a further cause of alarm in the Byzantine Church. The ensuing contest over new converts would result in Russia and the Balkans joining the Eastern Orthodox Church. The Kingdoms of Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary became Latin Catholic in culture and religion.
第四次拉特朗公会议（1215年）
教皇英诺森三世（1198-1216年）的统治代表了教皇权力的顶峰，由于教皇统治的极权性质，通常被称为“教皇君主制”。英诺森在1215年召开的第四次拉特朗公会议是教皇权力的最大体现。约500名主教和大主教、70多名牧首以及900多名修道院院长和牧师聚集在罗马，基本上是为了给英诺森已经起草的70项法令盖上“橡皮图章”。对自动同意的期望从根本上改变了以往大公会议的辩论和论证过程。
The reign of Pope Innocent III (r. 1198–1216) represents the zenith of papal power and is often referred to as the “papal monarchy” because of the totalitarian nature of papal rule. Innocent’s convocation of the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 is the maximal expression of papal power. Some 500 bishops and archbishops, more than 70 patriarchs, and over 900 abbots and priors converged upon Rome basically to “rubber stamp” 70 decrees that Innocent had already drawn up. The expectations of automatic consent posed a radical shift away from the process of debate and argumentation that had characterized previous ecumenical councils.
大会的总体目标是界定和捍卫天主教信仰，将打击异端的手段系统化，重申教会不受外人干扰的独立性，并在灾难性的第四次十字军东征之后开始组织第五次十字军东征。关于教义问题，第四次拉特朗公会议重申了七项圣事（洗礼、坚信礼、忏悔、圣体、极乐、婚姻和圣秩）是内部恩典的外部标志。它确立了超验学说作为官方教条，认为当耶稣在最后的晚餐上说“这是我的身体”时，他手中的面包的实际物质变成了他真正的身体，尽管其外表没有变化。大公会议还对所有信徒规定了“复活节义务”，即所有从青春期开始的天主教徒必须在每年的复活节前至少向神父忏悔一次自己的罪行。第四次拉特朗公会批准了对异端的镇压，并建立了宗教裁判所，作为一个全球性的机构来审判和惩罚异端和那些帮助和教唆他们的人。
The general goals of the council were to define and defend the Catholic faith, to systematize the means of combating heresy, to reaffirm the church’s independence of lay interference, and to begin to organize the Fifth Crusade in the wake of the disastrous Fourth Crusade. Concerning matters of dogma, Lateran IV reaffirmed the seven sacraments (baptism, confirmation, penance, the Eucharist, extreme unction, marriage, and holy orders) as external signs of internal grace. It instituted as official dogma the doctrine of transubstantiation, the belief that when Jesus said the words “This is my body” at the Last Supper, the actual substance of the bread he held in his hands changed into his actual body, even though its outward appearance remained the same. The council also imposed the “Easter duty” on all the faithful, such that all Catholics from the age of puberty onward had to confess all their sins to a priest at least once a year prior to Easter. Lateran IV sanctioned the suppression of heresy and established the Inquisition as a global institution to put on trial and punish heretics and those aiding and abetting them.
在政治上，第四次拉特朗公会重申了教皇至上的教义，并改变了牧首权力的顺序。在教皇之后，权力的首要地位现在将授予君士坦丁堡的拉丁牧首。在拉丁牧首之后是安提阿、亚历山大和耶路撒冷等传统牧首。在精神方面也有创新，因为英诺森三世批准了方济各会和多米尼加会的传教，这两场新的精神运动的出现，将日益增长的非宗教人士的精神力量引向正统，并协助打击异端。第四次拉特朗公会因规定犹太人和穆斯林有义务佩戴明显的徽章以区别于基督教徒而臭名昭著。第四次拉特朗公会还规定了对不遵守独身誓言、打猎或酗酒的叛逆教士的惩罚。最后，英诺森三世还干预了整个欧洲的政治婚姻、战争、对世俗王位的要求及商业活动。
Politically, the Fourth Lateran Council reiterated the doctrine of papal primacy and altered the order of patriarchal authority: After the pope, primacy of authority would now be conferred upon the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople. After the Latin Patriarch were the traditional patriarchs of Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem. There were spiritual innovations as well, since Innocent III approved the missions of the Franciscan and the Dominican Orders, two new spiritual movements that arose to channel the increased lay spirituality toward orthodoxy and to aid in the fight against heresy. Lateran IV is notorious for imposing upon Jews and Muslims the obligation to wear a visible badge to distinguish themselves from Christians. Lateran IV established the penalties for renegade clerics who disobeyed the vow of celibacy, hunted, or became drunk. Finally, Innocent III also intervened in political marriages, wars, claims to secular thrones, and commercial activities throughout Europe.
阿维尼翁之囚（“教皇的巴比伦式囚禁”）（1305-1378）和两任教皇（1378-1415）
在其权力的顶峰，富裕、华丽的教皇制度，就像有丝分裂的细胞一样，发生了分裂。突然间，在罗马和法国的阿维尼翁这两个城市出现了两位教皇。教会的这次西方分裂是由教皇波尼法爵八世（1294-1303年）发布的著名教宗诏书《独一至圣》（1302年）引起的，该诏书禁止法国和英国的国王向教会征税。该诏书宣称，所有人类生物都必须服从罗马教皇，以获得救赎，在教会之外不可能有救赎。法国国王腓力四世（1285-1314年）没有忘记教皇高于世俗统治者的政治含义，他试图废止教皇，但波尼法爵八世在1303年去世。此后，红衣主教们选出了一位听命于法国国王的教皇。教皇居住在法国的阿维尼翁，这是一个受法国君主制影响的教皇领地，这一时期被称为“罗马天主教会的巴比伦之囚”。在阿维尼翁占据教皇职位的七位教皇中，有许多人因其奢华的宫廷生活方式和腐败而闻名，这种腐败渗透到主教和牧师的队伍中。捏造事实和出售赎罪券的行为已经制度化。赦免书是一份准许部分或全部赦免罪过的文件。当与买方的忏悔、赦免和悔过相结合时，赦免书可以使人在死后免受炼狱之苦。在阿维尼翁之囚时期，净化和宽恕作为资助教皇的一种手段得以常规化。
At the zenith of its power, the rich, magnificent papacy, like a cell in mitosis, divided. Suddenly there were two popes in separate cities, Rome and Avignon, France. This Western schism of the church was prompted by the famous papal bull Unam sanctam (1302), issued by Pope Boniface VIII (r. 1294–1303), which prohibited the kings of France and England from taxing the church. The bull asserted that all human creatures must be subject to the Roman pontiff in order to obtain salvation, and that outside the church no salvation was possible. The political implications of papal supremacy over temporal rulers were not lost on King Philip the Fair of France (r. 1285–1314), who attempted to have the pope deposed, but Boniface died before he could in 1303. Thereafter the cardinals elected a pope subservient to the French king. The pope resided in France at Avignon, a papal fief under the influence of the French monarchy, and the period is called the Babylonian Captivity of the Roman Catholic Church. Many of the seven popes who occupied the papacy at Avignon were noted for their opulent palace lifestyle and corruption, and this corruption filtered down into the ranks of the bishops and priests. Simony and the sale of indulgences became institutionalized. An indulgence was a document granting partial or plenary forgiveness of sins. When combined with the buyer’s confession, absolution, and repentance, indulgences yielded freedom from suffering in purgatory after death. During the Babylonian Captivity simony and indulgences were routinized as a means of financing the papacy.
教皇腐败的一个明显例外是阿维尼翁教皇中的最后一位，格里高利九世（1370-78年），他听从杰出的多米尼加神秘主义者锡耶纳的圣加大利纳（1347-80年）的建议，做出了将教皇职位迁回罗马的决定。1378年，为选举教皇而召开的红衣主教会议被罗马的一群暴徒强迫选举了一位意大利教皇，于是他们选择了乌尔巴诺六世（1378-89年）。阿维尼翁教皇都是法国人，当法国红衣主教放弃罗马时，他们决定，选举是在胁迫下进行的，应予取消。因此，他们选出了自己的教皇克莱孟七世（1378-94年），罗马教会指定他为“对立教宗”。根据教皇至高无上的原则，没有更高的权威可以让教会决定这两位教皇中哪一位是合法的。因此，人们被要求向两个教皇国缴纳被称为年金的税款。西方宗教分裂削弱了教皇对世俗统治者的至高无上的原则，因为每个教皇都向敌对的世俗王国呼吁，以获得对其教皇地位的支持。它还引起了普通信徒的惊愕，他们对支持多个教皇国的经济成本感到恼火，并对他们不朽的灵魂可能下地狱感到不安，因为每个教皇国都将对方逐出教会，并宣布其管理圣礼的权利无效。
An apparent exception to papal corruption was the last of the Avignon popes, Gregory IX (r. 1370–78), who, following the advice of the remarkable Dominican mystic Catherine of Siena (1347–80), made the fateful decision to restore the papacy to Rome. In 1378 cardinals meeting to elect a pope were forced by a Roman mob to elect an Italian pope and so chose Urban VI (r. 1378–89). The Avignon popes had all been French, and when the French cardinals abandoned Rome, they decided that the election had been made under duress and should be nullified. Consequently, they elected their own pope, Clement VII (r. 1378–94), whom the Roman Church designated as an “antipope.” According to the principle of papal supremacy, there was no higher authority to whom the church could appeal to decide which of the two popes was legitimate. Accordingly, the people were required to pay taxes called annates to two individual papacies. The Western schism eroded the principle of papal supremacy over temporal rulers as each pope appealed to rival secular kingdoms in order to gain support for his papacy. It also provoked consternation among the lay faithful, irked at the financial cost of supporting multiple papacies and distraught over fears that their immortal souls might go to hell, since each papacy excommunicated the other and declared its right to administer the sacraments to be invalid.
针对这种滥用教权的行为，珍视基督教的改革者开始质疑绝对主义的教皇权威，呼吁教皇改革，并呼吁恢复耶稣和他的使徒们所遵循的“使徒贫穷”模式。在阿维尼翁之囚的高峰期，意大利帕多瓦的非宗教人文主义者马西利乌斯（1270-1342年）于1324年发表了政治著作《和平守护者》（Defensor pacis），肯定世俗国家是公共福利的合法捍卫者，并将教会的作用仅归于精神事务。英格兰的约翰·威克里夫（John Wycliffe）（约1320-84年）因其将《圣经》翻译成英文而被人们所熟知，他公开宣称，在世俗事务中，君主的权威高于教皇的权威，教会应遵守“使徒贫穷”的教义，出售赎罪券是亵渎行为，圣礼没有授予恩典或救赎的真正精神力量，从而将对神职人员的需求降到最低。同样，民粹主义传教士扬·胡斯（Jan Hus，约1371-1415年）也谴责出售赎罪券，并声称教皇的权力不是来自上帝，而是来自教会的团体。作为回应，教会将扬·胡斯谴责为异端，并命令将他烧死在火刑柱上，在他的家乡波西米亚引发了胡斯战争（1420-34）。这些理论为新教改革铺平了道路，德意志神学家马丁·路德（1483-1546年）于1517年发表了著名的《九十五条论纲》，挑战教皇的权威和放纵的权力与效力。
Against such misuses of clerical authority, reformers who cherished Christianity began questioning absolutist papal authority, clamoring for papal reform, and calling for the restoration of the modelic “apostolic poverty” that Jesus and his apostles followed. At the height of the Babylonian Captivity, the lay humanist Marsiglio of Padua in Italy (1270–1342) published his controversial treatise Defensor pacis, (Defender of the peace) in 1324, affirming the secular state as the rightful defender of the public welfare and relegating the role of the church to spiritual matters only. John Wycliffe of England (c. 1320–84), best remembered for his English translation of the Bible, declared publicly that in temporal matters the authority of the monarch supersedes that of the pope, that the church should observe apostolic poverty, that the sale of indulgences was simony, and that the sacraments had no real spiritual power to confer grace or salvation, thus minimizing the need for the clergy. Similarly, the populist preacher Jan Hus (c. 1371–1415) condemned the sale of indulgences and claimed that the pope’s power did not derive from God, but rather from the community of the church. In response, the church condemned Hus as a heretic and ordered him to be burned at the stake, giving rise to the Hussite War (1420–34) in his native Bohemia. Such theories would pave the way for the Protestant Reformation that the German theologian Martin Luther (1483–1546) inaugurated in 1517 when he published his famous “95 Theses” challenging the authority of the pope and the power and efficacy of indulgences.
宗教会议、教皇权力和三位教皇
为了结束教宗分裂，支持对立教宗罗马的格里高利十二世（1406-15年）和阿维尼翁的本笃十三世（1394-1417年）的红衣主教们同意在1409年召开比萨会议，打算罢免这两位在位的教皇。两人都顽固地拒绝让出他们的教皇宝座。红衣主教们宣布两位教皇都是分裂主义者和异端，并选举亚历山大五世为教皇（1409-10年）。现在，出现了三位教皇的局面。1414年，神圣罗马帝国皇帝西吉斯蒙德（1410-37年）和对立教宗约翰二十二世（1410-15年）召开了康斯坦茨大公会议，以结束教皇的三权分立，谴责异端邪说（如扬·胡斯及其运动），并试图进行教会改革。会议废黜了约翰二十二世，选举马丁五世（1417-31年）为教皇。康斯坦茨大公会议发布了两项戏剧性的声明，表明其对教皇的控制。第一项法令“Sacrosancta”（神圣不可侵犯）宣布会议高于教皇。第二项法令“Frequens”（会议召开频率）确立了每10年举行一次会议的规则。他们宣称会议权力和10年规则是试图将持有圣彼得钥匙的人铐起来。
In an attempt to end the papal schism, cardinals supporting the rival popes Gregory XII of Rome (r. 1406–15) and Benedict XIII of Avignon (r. 1394–1417) agreed to convoke the Council of Pisa in 1409 with the intention of deposing the two reigning popes. Both stubbornly refused to vacate their papal thrones. The cardinals declared both popes to be schismatics and heretics and elected Alexander V as pope (r. 1409–10). Now, there were three popes. In 1414 Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund (r. 1410–37) and the antipope John XXII (r. 1410–15) convoked the Council of Constance to end papal triplicity, condemn heresies (such as those of Jan Hus and his movement), and attempt church reform. The council deposed John XXII and elected Martin V (r. 1417–31) to reign as pope. Constance issued two dramatic declarations of its control over the papacy. The decree Sacrosancta declared the council superior to the pope. The second decree, Frequens, established the rule that councils would meet every 10 years. The assertion of conciliar power and this 10-year rule were attempts to handcuff the people who held Saint Peter’s keys.
但教皇马丁另有想法。他解散了康斯坦茨大公会议，收回了圣彼得的钥匙，并重新确立了教皇的首要地位。在接下来的三十年里，教会旧有的不公正现象继续滋生。裙带关系，即把有利可图的教会职位授予教皇的子女或亲属，十分猖獗。亵渎罪和出售赎罪券的行为继续有增无减。
But Pope Martin had other ideas. He dissolved the Council of Constance, reclaimed the keys of Saint Peter, and reasserted papal primacy. For the next three decades old church injustices continued to thrive. Nepotism, the bestowing of lucrative church positions upon papal children or relatives, was rampant. Simony and the sale of indulgences continued unabated.
如同议会和代议制庄园对世俗统治者的劝告或控制一样，教会理事会在1400年至1450年期间召开会议，反复试图改革教皇制度。但教皇战胜了插手他们权力的人。1438年，法国教会，即高卢教会，在《布尔日国事诏书》中确认了教会会议高于教皇的地位，宣布在行政上独立于罗马教廷，禁止向罗马支付年金税，并禁止教皇干预法国教会人员的任命。1431年，马丁五世召集了巴塞尔会议，并由其继任者安日纳四世（1431-37年）主持，以处理胡斯异端，并解决会议权力与教皇权威的问题。政治争斗导致安日纳被罢免，1437年对立教宗菲利克斯五世当选。安日纳通过谈判重新统一罗马教会和拜占庭教会，并提出如果世俗和宗教当局承认对立教宗菲利克斯，另一次西方分裂将造成伤害的担忧，从而为自己的事业争取支持。安日纳的论点占了上风，1449年，会议被解散了。第二年，即1450年，教廷举行了一场盛大的庆典，庆祝教皇的政治胜利。教皇的教会之剑重申了对圣彼得钥匙的安全保管。
As parliaments and representative estates counsel or control secular rulers, church councils met between 1400 and 1450 in repeated attempts to reform the papacy. But the popes triumphed over the meddlers in their power. The French, or Gallican, Church in 1438 in the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges affirmed the supremacy of church councils over the pope, declared administrative independence from the Holy See, suppressed payments of annate taxes to Rome, and forbade papal intervention in the appointment of French churchmen. In 1431 the Council of Basel was convoked by Martin V and presided over by his successor, Eugene IV (r. 1431–37), in order to deal with the Hussite heresy and to settle the issue of conciliar versus papal authority. Political wrangling led to the deposition of Eugene and the election of the antipope Felix V in 1437. Eugene was able to marshal support for his cause by undertaking negotiations to reunite the Roman and Byzantine Churches and to raise the specter of harm that another Western schism would cause if the secular and religious authorities recognized antipope Felix. Eugene’s arguments prevailed, and in 1449 the council was dissolved. The following year, 1450, the papacy held a great jubilee to celebrate papal political triumph. The pope’s ecclesiastical sword reaffirmed the safekeeping of the keys of Saint Peter.
《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）
By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones
未完待续！
